S.E.C Railway Higher Secondary School No.

Physics project
Session --- 2025-26
Topic – Magnetism

Submitted by --
Rahul Kumar
Class – 12 ‘C’
Roll no.-- Submitted to
–-
Ankita
Biswas
 Project Index
1. Certificate of excellence
2. Acknowledgment
3. Aim
4. Introduction
5. Theory
6. Application
7. Conclusion
8. Bibliography
 Certificate of excellence

This certificate is proudly presented to:

Rahul kumar

Class 12

For outstanding excellence in

[Subject – physics]

Your dedication, hard work, and commitment have been exemplary throughout the
academic year [2025-26].
We recognize and celebrate your achievements and wish you continued success in all future
endeavors.
 Acknowledgment

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all those who supported and guided me
throughout the completion of this Physics project on the topic "Magnetism."

First and foremost, I would like to thank my Physics teacher, [Ankita mam], for their valuable
guidance, encouragement, and continuous support throughout the project. Their insightful
suggestions and deep knowledge of the subject helped me understand the concepts more
clearly and complete the project successfully.

A special thanks to my parents and friends for their constant support, motivation, and
encouragement during the course of this project.

Finally, I would like to express my appreciation for all the resources—books, online materials,
and lab equipment—that helped me in exploring the fascinating world of Magnetism in
greater depth.

Thank you.

Rahul Kumar
Class 12 – ‘C’
 Aim

Magnetism is the class of physical attributes that occur through a magnetic field, which
allows objects to attract or repel each other. Because both electic current
and magnetic of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field, magnetism is one of two
aspects of electromagnetism. The most familiar effects occur in ferromagnetic materials,
which are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and can be magnetized to become
permanent magnets, producing magnetic fields themselves. Demagnetizing a magnet is also
possible. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic; the most common ones
are iron, cobalt, nickel, and their alloys.

All substances exhibit some type of magnetism. Magnetic materials are classified according
to their bulk susceptibility. Ferromagnetism is responsible for most of the effects of
magnetism encountered in everyday life, but there are actually several types of
magnetism. Paramagnetic substances, such as aluminium and oxygen, are weakly attracted
to an applied magnetic field; diamagnetic substances, such as copper and carbon, are weakly
repelled.
 Introduction

Magnetism is the physical phenomenon of attraction or repulsion that arises from a

magnetic field, which is generated by the motion of electric charges. In physics, this involves
understanding how moving charges, like currents and electron spin, create magnetic fields
and how these fields exert forces on other moving charges. Key concepts include a magnet's
poles (north and south), the magnetic field lines, and how like poles repel while unlike poles
attract.

A magnetic field is the region around a magnet or moving charge where a magnetic force
can be detected. This force is exerted on other magnets and moving charges, and it can
either attract or repel them.

Magnetism is fundamentally caused by moving electric charges.

This can be:

• Electric currents in a wire

• Electrons moving in an atomic orbital

• The intrinsic magnetic moment of elementary particles, such as the electron's spin
 Theory

Ancient Discovery Around 600 BCE, Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus noticed that a
mineral called lodestone (a naturally magnetized piece of the mineral magnetite) could
attract small pieces of iron.

The theory of magnetism in based on the atomic theory of magnetism, which states that
each atom acts as a tiny magnet with a north and south pole. In an unmagnetized material,
these atomic magnets are randomly oriented and cancel each other out, resulting in zero net
magnetism. When the material is magnetized, the atomic magnets align in the same
direction, creating a net magnetic field.

Electrons revolving around the nucleus create a magnetic dipole, making each atom a
miniature magnet.

In an unmagnetized object, the magnetic dipoles of the atoms are randomly oriented, and
their magnetic fields cancel out.

When a material is magnetized, an external magnetic field aligns the atomic magnets in a
single direction, producing a net magnetic moment.

magnetic susceptibility or permeability

• Definition:
Magnetic susceptibility is a measure of how much a material becomes magnetized when
it is placed in a magnetic field.
• Symbol: χ (Chi)
Formula:
• 𝑀 = 𝜒𝐻
where
• 𝑀= magnetization (A/m)
• 𝐻= magnetizing field (A/m)
• Unit: Dimensionless (no unit)
• Meaning:
• If χ > 0, the material is paramagnetic (weakly attracted to magnets).
• If χ < 0, the material is diamagnetic (weakly repelled).
• If χ ≫ 1, the material is ferromagnetic (strongly attracted).
 Magnetic Permeability (μ)
• Definition:
Magnetic permeability measures how easily magnetic lines of force can pass through a
material.
• Symbol: μ
Formula:
• 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻

• where
• 𝐵= magnetic flux density (T)
• 𝐻= magnetic field strength (A/m)
• Unit: Henry per metre (H/m)
• Types:
• Absolute permeability (μ): actual permeability of material
• Relative permeability (μᵣ): ratio of material’s permeability to that of free space
𝜇
• 𝜇𝑟 =
𝜇0

• where 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻
• 🔗 Relation between Susceptibility and Permeability
𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒

Para magnetism

• Example: Aluminum, platinum

• Explanation:

o Atoms in these materials have unpaired electrons that

make them weakly magnetic.

o When placed in a magnetic field, they are slightly attracted to it.

o But they lose magnetism once the field is removed.

• Key Point: Weak and temporary magnetism.

Common Examples of Paramagnetic Materials

1. Aluminum (Al) –
Weakly attracted to magnets; used in some magnetic levitation and cryogenic
applications.

2. Platinum (Pt) –
Shows noticeable paramagnetism and is used in lab instruments and catalysts.

3. Manganese (Mn) –
Paramagnetic due to unpaired electrons in its atomic structure.

4. Chromium (Cr) –
Weakly paramagnetic metal used in stainless steel and coatings.

5. Magnesium (Mg) –
Exhibits mild paramagnetism.

Diamagnetism

• Example: Copper, gold, bismuth, water

• Explanation:

o These materials have no unpaired electrons, so

they do not have a natural magnetic moment.

o When placed in a magnetic field, they are weakly repelled by it.

o This effect is very weak and usually hidden by stronger forms of magnetism.

• Key Point: Weak repulsion from magnetic fields.

Common Examples of Diamagnetic Materials

• • Bismuth (Bi) –
One of the strongest diamagnetic substances; repelled strongly by magnets.
• • Copper (Cu) –
Common metal that is weakly repelled by magnets.
• • Silver (Ag) –
Shows weak diamagnetism; used in jewelry and electrical conductors.
• • Gold (Au) –
Weakly diamagnetic; used in electronics and jewelry.
• • Lead (Pb) –
Diamagnetic and used in shielding and heavy materials
 Ferromagnetism

• Example: Iron, cobalt, nickel

• Explanation:

o In ferromagnetic materials, the atoms act like tiny

magnets.

o These atomic magnets line up in the same direction, creating a strong

magnetic field.

o They can be permanently magnetized — that’s how bar magnets are made.

• Key Point: Strongest type of magnetism.

Common Examples of Ferromagnetic Materials

1. Iron (Fe) –
The most well-known ferromagnetic material; used in magnets, transformers, and
electric motors.

2. Cobalt (Co) –
Used in high-strength magnets and alloys (like Alnico magnets).

3. Nickel (Ni) –
Commonly used in coins, stainless steel, and magnetic alloys.

Hysteresis Loop

The Hysteresis Loop is a graph that shows how a ferromagnetic material (like iron or steel)
becomes magnetized and demagnetized when an external magnetic field is applied and then
removed.

It shows the relationship between:

• Magnetic field strength (H) → horizontal axis

• Magnetic flux density (B) → vertical axis

• O → A (Magnetization)
o When we apply a magnetic field (H) to an unmagnetized material, it slowly
gets magnetized.
o The value of B increases as more atomic domains align in the direction of the
field.
 o At point A, the material reaches magnetic saturation — all domains are
aligned.
• A → B (Removing the Field)
o When the magnetic field is reduced to zero, B does not return to zero.
o Some magnetism remains — this is called retentivity (or remanent
magnetism), shown by point B.
• B → C (Reversing the Field)
o If we now apply the magnetic field in the opposite direction, B decreases and
becomes zero at point C.
o The reverse field needed to make B zero is called coercive force (coercivity).
• C → D (Negative Saturation)
o As the reverse field increases, B again reaches saturation in the opposite
direction (point D).
• D → E → A (Completing the Loop)
o When we again reverse the field, the same process repeats, forming a closed
curve called the Hysteresis Loop.
 Application
Applications of magnetism from physics curriculum include electric motors and generators
(converting electrical to mechanical and vice versa), transformers, and MRI machines which
use strong magnetic fields for medical imaging. Other uses involve devices like speakers and
headphones, data storage in hard drives and magnetic strips, and magnetic levitation for
things like train systems.

They use the principle of electromagnetic induction to step up or step down AC voltages, a
key component in power transmission.

Hospitals use powerful electromagnets to create detailed images of organs and tissues
inside the body, as explained on Jagran Josh.

Daily use of magnetism

1. Electric fans and motors

2. Refrigerator doors
3. Speakers and microphones

Use of Defence

1. Navigation Systems

2. Magnetic Sensors

3. Magnetic Mines and Detectors

4. Radar and Communication Systems

5. Missile Guidance Systems

Use of space

1. Communication

2. Weather Forecasting

3. Scientific Research

4. Military and Defence

5. Resource Mapping

Use of Railway
1. Electromagnets in Brakes

2. Maglev Trains

3. Electric Motors

4. Signaling Systems

5. Lifting and Moving Heavy Objects .

 Conclusion
The conclusion of Class 12 magnetism is that moving charges create magnetic fields, and
these fields exert forces on other moving charges (the Lorentz force). This principle, known
as electromagnetism, is the foundation for phenomena like electromagnetic induction
(where changing magnetic fields generate current) and the design of many technologies,
from motors to data storage devices. Magnetic fields and their effects are also classified by
material properties like ferromagnetism, paramagnetism, and diamagnetism, which
determine how materials interact with magnetic fields.

• Moving charges and magnetic fields:

A moving electric charge produces a magnetic field around it, and a magnetic field can exert
a force on another moving charge.

Lorentz Force: The force on a moving charge in the presence of both electric and magnetic
fields is called the Lorentz force.

Magnetic materials:

Materials can be classified based on their magnetic properties:

 Bibliography

• For a Class 12 magnetism bibliography, key resources include NCERT textbooks and
online resources like Grafiati, Vedantu.
• SATHEE which often cite classic works and key concepts.
• A good bibliography should include these foundational texts, plus more advanced
materials like "Magnetic Fields" by Heinz E. Knoepfel and "Introduction to Magnetism

and Magnetic Materials" by David Jiles.

End of project