PART 1: Questions Requiring Extended Answers (20 Questions)

1. Question: Explain the fundamental characteristics of the metallic bond

and how these characteristics influence the general properties of metals
(such as electrical conductivity and ductility).

o Summary Answer: The metallic bond involves a "sea of

delocalized electrons" surrounding positive ion cores. It is non-
directional. The mobility of these free electrons allows for high
electrical and thermal conductivity. The non-directional nature of
the bond allows atoms to slide past one another without breaking
the bond, resulting in ductility3.

2. Question: What are crystal defects (point, line, planar)? Detail the role
of dislocations (line defects) in plastic deformation.

o Summary Answer: Defects include vacancies and interstitials

(point), dislocations (line), and grain boundaries (planar). Plastic
deformation occurs primarily through the motion of dislocations
(slip). Without dislocations, the theoretical strength required to
deform metal would be much higher; their movement allows atomic
planes to slip sequentially4.

3. Question: Write the Hall-Petch equation and explain, using the "grain
boundary barrier" mechanism, why decreasing grain size increases the
strength of the material.

o Summary Answer: σy = σ0 + ky d-1/2. Grain boundaries act as

barriers to dislocation motion because the crystallographic
orientation changes across the boundary. Smaller grains mean
more boundaries per unit volume, creating more obstacles for
dislocations, thus increasing strength5.

4. Question: What is Solid Solution Strengthening? How do interstitial

and substitutional impurity atoms hinder dislocation motion?

o Summary Answer: It is the strengthening of a metal by alloying.

Impurity atoms distort the lattice (creating lattice strain). These
strain fields interact with the strain fields of dislocations, effectively
pinning them or restricting their movement, which increases the
stress required for deformation6.

5. Question: Explain the mechanism of Cold Working (also known as

Strain Hardening). Why does the material become harder?

o Summary Answer: During plastic deformation below the

recrystallization temperature, the dislocation density increases
dramatically. Dislocations interact with and entangle one another
 (dislocation pile-ups), making further motion difficult. This
increases yield strength and hardness but decreases ductility 7.

6. Question: Describe the three stages of Annealing (Recovery,

Recrystallization, Grain Growth) and the changes that occur in the
microstructure and mechanical properties during these stages.

o Summary Answer: Recovery: Relief of internal stresses.

Recrystallization: Formation of new, strain-free grains (strength
drops, ductility rises). Grain Growth: If heating continues, the new
grains grow larger to reduce grain boundary energy 8.

7. Question: Compare Diffusion mechanisms (Vacancy vs. Interstitial).

State when to use Fick’s 1st Law versus Fick’s 2nd Law.

o Summary Answer: Interstitial diffusion is faster than vacancy

diffusion because interstitial atoms are smaller and there are more
open sites. Fick's 1st Law is for steady-state diffusion (constant
flux). Fick's 2nd Law is for non-steady-state diffusion (concentration
changes with time)9.

8. Question: On a Tensile Test curve, define the Elastic Modulus, Yield

Strength, Tensile Strength, and Elongation at Break.

o Summary Answer: Elastic Modulus (E): Slope of the linear

region (stiffness). Yield Strength (σy): Stress at the onset of
plastic deformation. Tensile Strength (TS): Maximum stress on
the curve. Elongation: Measure of ductility (strain at fracture)10.

9. Question: Compare Ductile and Brittle fracture in terms of fracture

surface appearance and energy absorption.

o Summary Answer: Ductile: Extensive plastic deformation, high

energy absorption, "cup and cone" appearance, dull/fibrous
surface. Brittle: Little to no deformation, low energy absorption,
flat cleavage surface, shiny/granular appearance 11.

10. Question: What is Fatigue? What does the S-N curve represent,
and explain the concept of "Endurance Limit" for steels.

o Summary Answer: Failure under cyclic loading (often below yield

strength). The S-N curve plots Stress Amplitude vs. Number of
Cycles to failure. The Endurance Limit is a stress level below which
the material will theoretically never fail by fatigue (infinite life) 12.

11. Question: What is Creep? At what temperatures does it become

significant, and describe the three stages of the creep curve.

o Summary Answer: Time-dependent deformation under constant

load at high temperatures (T > 0.4 Tm). Stages: Primary (decreasing
 rate), Secondary (constant/steady-state rate), Tertiary (accelerating
rate leading to rupture)13.

12. Question: Identify the Eutectic and Eutectoid reactions on the

Fe-C phase diagram. At what temperatures and carbon compositions do
they occur?

o Summary Answer: Eutectic: Liquid →γ + Fe3C (at 1147°C, 4.3 wt

% C). Eutectoid: γ → α + Fe3C (Pearlite) (at 727°C, 0.76 wt% C)14.

13. Question: Explain the formation mechanism of Martensite in

steels. Why is it so hard and brittle?

o Summary Answer: It forms via a diffusionless shear

transformation during rapid cooling (quenching). Carbon is trapped
in the lattice, forming a Body-Centered Tetragonal (BCT) structure.
The supersaturated carbon highly strains the lattice, preventing
dislocation motion15.

14. Question: What is the main difference between a TTT (Time-

Temperature-Transformation) diagram and a CCT (Continuous Cooling
Transformation) diagram? Which is more practical?

o Summary Answer: TTT is for isothermal transformations (holding

at constant temp). CCT is for continuous cooling (like quenching or
air cooling). CCT is more practical for real-world heat treatment
processes16.

15. Question: What is Hardenability? How is it measured using the

Jominy End-Quench Test?

o Summary Answer: The ability of a steel to form martensite

throughout its cross-section (depth of hardening). In the Jominy
test, a standard bar is quenched from one end; hardness is
measured along the length to see how deep the hardening
extends17.

16. Question: Describe the Precipitation Hardening mechanism in

Aluminum alloys using the steps: Solution Heat Treatment, Quenching,
and Aging.

o Summary Answer: Solution Treatment: Heat to single phase to

dissolve elements. Quench: Rapid cool to freeze the structure
(supersaturated solid solution). Aging: Heat gently to allow fine
precipitates to form, which pin dislocations 18.

17. Question: What is the fundamental compositional difference

between Cast Irons and Steels? Distinguish between the microstructure
of Grey and Ductile (Nodular) Cast Iron.
 o Summary Answer: Steels have <2.14% C; Cast Irons have
>2.14% C (usually 3-4.5%). Grey Iron: Graphite exists as flakes
(brittle). Ductile Iron: Graphite exists as spheres/nodules (ductile)
due to Mg/Ce addition19.

18. Question: Which element makes Stainless Steel corrosion-

resistant, and how does it provide this protection?

o Summary Answer: Chromium (minimum ≈11-12%). It reacts with

oxygen to form a thin, dense, self-healing, and adherent layer of
Chromium Oxide on the surface, which blocks further oxidation 20.

19. Question: What are the main components of Brass and Bronze?
Give one application for each.

o Summary Answer: Brass: Cu + Zn (Cartridge cases, musical

instruments). Bronze: Cu + Sn (Bearings, statues/coins)21.

20. Question: Why are Titanium alloys preferred in the aerospace

industry (refer to specific strength)?

o Summary Answer: They have an exceptionally high specific

strength (strength-to-weight ratio), excellent corrosion resistance,
and good high-temperature performance22.

PART 2: Test Questions (Multiple Choice) (20 Questions)

These test conceptual understanding and definitions.

1. Which of the following crystal structures has the highest Atomic Packing
Factor (APF = 0.74)?

a) BCC

b) Simple Cubic

c) FCC

d) All are equal

Answer: c (FCC and HCP have 0.74)23.

2. How many atoms are there per unit cell in an FCC structure?

a) 1

b) 2

c) 4

d) 6

Answer: c24.
 3. The rate of diffusion is not affected by which of the following?

a) Temperature

b) Type of diffusion (Interstitial/Vacancy)

c) Crystal structure

d) Color of the sample

Answer: d25.

4. What does the slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic region
represent?

a) Yield Strength

b) Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus)

c) Tensile Strength

d) Toughness

Answer: b26.

5. If a steel containing 0.76% Carbon is cooled slowly below the eutectoid

temperature (727°C), what microstructure forms?

a) Pure Ferrite

b) Pure Cementite

c) Pearlite

d) Martensite

Answer: c27.

6. Which heat treatment is applied after quenching to relieve internal

stresses and increase toughness?

a) Normalizing

b) Tempering

c) Spheroidizing

d) Austenitizing

Answer: b28.

7. Which of the following is not a hardness testing method?

a) Vickers

b) Brinell

c) Rockwell
d) Charpy

Answer: d (Charpy is for impact toughness)29.

8. As temperature increases, metals generally exhibit:

a) Increased strength, decreased ductility

b) Decreased strength, increased ductility

c) Increased strength and ductility

d) No change

Answer: b30.

9. Dislocation motion (slip) occurs on which planes in a crystal lattice?

a) Planes with the lowest atomic density

b) Planes with the highest atomic density (closest packed)

c) Random planes

d) Grain boundaries

Answer: b31.

10. In the Fe-C diagram, which phase is stable between 727°C and
1147°C with carbon content up to 2.14%?

a) Ferrite (α)

b) Cementite (Fe3C)

c) Austenite (γ)

d) Ledeburite

Answer: c32.

11. Which of the following is a "Non-ferrous" alloy?

a) Low carbon steel

b) Grey cast iron

c) Aluminum-Copper alloy

d) Stainless steel

Answer: c33.

12. What does the Charpy V-Notch test measure?

a) Hardness

b) Impact Energy (Toughness)

c) Creep resistance

d) Fatigue life

Answer: b34.

13. What is the most distinct feature of the Martensitic transformation?

a) It is diffusion-controlled

b) It happens very slowly

c) It is diffusionless (shear)

d) It only happens on the surface

Answer: c35.

14. When a cold-worked metal is heated, at which stage does the

hardness drop suddenly and new grains form?

a) Recovery

b) Recrystallization

c) Grain Growth

d) Aging

Answer: b36.

15. What is the chemical formula for the Cementite phase?

a) FeC

b) Fe2C

c) Fe3C

d) Fe3C2

Answer: c37.

16. Which of the following is a 2-Dimensional (Planar) defect?

a) Vacancy

b) Dislocation

c) Grain Boundary

d) Impurity atom

Answer: c38.

17. What is the most effective way to increase the hardenability of

steel?
a) Decreasing carbon content

b) Adding alloying elements (Cr, Ni, Mo)

c) Increasing grain size

d) Slowing the cooling rate

Answer: b39.

18. Which element is added to liquid metal to produce Ductile (Nodular)

Cast Iron?

a) Sulfur

b) Magnesium or Cerium

c) Phosphorus

d) Chromium

Answer: b40.

19. In the classification of Aluminum alloys, what is the main alloying

element for the 7xxx series?

a) Copper

b) Silicon

c) Zinc

d) Magnesium

Answer: c41.

20. How does the electrical conductivity of metals change as

temperature increases?

a) Increases

b) Decreases

c) Remains the same

d) Increases then decreases

Answer: b42.

PART 3: Calculation Problems (10 Questions)

These require formulas and data interpretation.

1. APF Calculation: Copper has an FCC structure and an atomic radius r =
0.128 nm. Calculate the unit cell edge length ($a$) and its theoretical
nA
density. ρ= (n=4).
VC NA

nA
o Hint: For FCC, a = 2r√2. Density ρ= (n=4 for FCC)43.
VC NA

2. ASTM Grain Size: In a microscopic examination of a steel sample at

100x magnification, an average of 32 grains were counted in a 1 square
inch area. Calculate the ASTM grain size number (G).

o Formula: N = 2G-1 (Where N is the number of grains at 100x)44.

3. Diffusion (Arrhenius): The diffusion coefficient in a metal is $D_1$ at

1000K and $D_2$ at 1200K. Calculate the activation energy ($Q_d$).

o Formula: Use D = D0 exp(-Qd / RT) for both temperatures and solve

for Qd45.

4. Engineering Stress: A tensile load of 15,000 N is applied to a cylindrical

bar with a diameter of 10 mm. Calculate the engineering stress (in MPa).

o Formula: σ = F / A0. (A0 = π r2) .

46

5. True Stress/Strain: In a tensile test, if the engineering stress is 400 MPa

and the engineering strain is 0.15, what is the True Stress (σT) at that
moment?

o Formula: σT = σ(1 + ε) (Valid only up to necking)47.

6. Lever Rule: A steel with 0.4% C is at equilibrium at 728°C (just above

the eutectoid temperature). If the Carbon content in Austenite ($\
gamma$) is 0.76% and in Ferrite ($\alpha$) is 0.022%, calculate the
weight fractions of Ferrite and Austenite.
c γ−c 0 c 0−c α
o Formula: W α = W γ=
c γ−c a c γ −c a

7. Hall-Petch Calculation: A material has a yield strength of 150 MPa at a

grain diameter (d) of 0.04 mm, and 210 MPa at d=0.01 mm. What will be
the yield strength if the grain diameter is reduced to 0.0025 mm?

o Method: Use σy = σ0 + ky d-1/2 to find constants σ0 and ky, then solve

for the third condition49.

8. Impact Energy: In a Charpy test, a 20 kg pendulum is released from a

height of 1 meter. After breaking the specimen, it swings up to a height of
0.2 meters. Calculate the impact energy absorbed by the specimen.
(g=9.81 m/s2)
 o Formula: E = m × g × (hinitial - hfinal)50.

9. Phase Transformation: A 1 kg Fe-C alloy containing 3% C (Cast Iron) is

cooled slowly to room temperature. Calculate the total amount of
Cementite (Fe3C) present. (Assume Cementite is 6.7% C and Ferrite is ≈
0%$ C).

o Formula: Apply the Lever Rule between the limits 0% and 6.7%.
3−0
W F C=
e3
6.7−0

10. Composite/Alloy Density: Calculate the theoretical density of a

Brass alloy containing 70 wt% Cu (ρ=8.96 g/cm 3) and 30 wt% Zn (ρ=7.13
g/cm3).
100
ρave =
o Formula: CCu C Zn
+
ρCu ρZn