Rectilinear and Curvilinear Motion
Rectilinear Motion: This involves movement along a straight
line. The parameters of interest include displacement,
velocity, and acceleration, which can be constant or variable.
Curvilinear Motion: This refers to movement along a curved
path.
The analysis considers not only the speed but also the
curvature of the path, which affects the acceleration and
forces acting on the object.
Practical Applications of D’Alembert’s Principle in Engineering
D’Alembert’s principle is a powerful analytical tool in engineering
mechanics, allowing for the simplification of dynamic problems by
transforming them into equivalent static problems. This principle is
particularly useful in various engineering applications, including the
following:
****1. Structural Analysis
D’Alembert’s principle can be applied to analyze structures subjected to dynamic loads, such as buildings during earthquakes or bridges under moving vehicles. By introducing
inertial forces, engineers can evaluate how structures respond to these forces and ensure they can withstand such dynamic conditions.
****2. Mechanical Systems
In mechanical engineering, D’Alembert’s principle aids in the analysis of machinery and mechanisms. For instance:
Linkage Systems: The forces acting on links in a mechanism can be analyzed using D’Alembert’s principle, allowing engineers to determine the necessary dimensions and
materials for each link based on the dynamic forces involved.
Rotational Dynamics: When analyzing rotating bodies, such as flywheels or gears, engineers can use the principle to simplify calculations related to torque and angular
acceleration by introducing inertial torques.
****3. Vehicle Dynamics
In automotive engineering, D’Alembert’s principle helps analyze the dynamics of vehicles during acceleration, braking, and cornering. By considering inertial forces, engineers
can optimize vehicle stability and performance under various driving conditions.
****4. Robotics
In robotics, D’Alembert’s principle is used to model the motion of robotic arms and other articulated systems. By transforming complex dynamic interactions into static equilibrium
problems, engineers can design control algorithms that ensure accurate and efficient movement.
****5. Aerospace Engineering
In aerospace applications, D’Alembert’s principle is crucial for analyzing the flight dynamics of aircraft and spacecraft. It allows engineers to predict how these vehicles will
respond to various forces during maneuvers, contributing to safer and more efficient designs.
****6. Fluid Mechanics
While primarily used in rigid body dynamics, D’Alembert’s principle can also be adapted for certain fluid mechanics problems where inertial effects are significant. This includes
analyzing the motion of fluid bodies or predicting the behavior of floating structures under dynamic conditions. In summary, D’Alembert’s principle serves as a versatile tool across
multiple engineering disciplines by simplifying complex dynamic problems into more manageable static analyses. This capability enhances design accuracy and safety in various
applications.
Motion Curves
Motion curves graphically represent the relationship between
displacement, velocity, and time. They help visualize how an object's
position changes over time. Key types of motion curves include:
Position-Time Graphs: Show how position changes with time.
Velocity-Time Graphs: Indicate how velocity varies with time.
Acceleration-Time Graphs: Illustrate changes in acceleration over
time.
[Link]
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[Link]
#Position_vs_Time_Graph_for_Multi-Stage_Motion
Match the Velocity-Time Graph
Dynamics
History of Dynamics
(Around 400 years)
Basics
Basics
Particle: A body whose dimensions can be
neglected compared to its path then it can
be treated like a point at its center of mass.
Basics
Constrained Motion: If a particle is confined
to a specified path (due to physical guides for
example) then it is constrained motion.
Unconstrained Motion: If the particle is free
from any guides the motion is unconstrained.
Newton’s law of motion
Rectilinear Motion
Rectilinear Motion
Differential equations
Rectilinear Motion
Equation of motion
Uniform velocity motion
When the velocity of the body remains constant throughout the period of time
then the body is said to be uniform velocity motion.
Therefore when the body moves with uniform velocity, the rate of change of velocity
is zero and hence the acceleration is also zero.
Position and Displacement vector Displacement of Satellite Total displacement: Brownian motion
The displacement vector gives the
shortest path between two points in
one, two, or three dimensions.
the magnitude of the total displacement is less
than the sum of the magnitudes of the individual
displacements.
Instantaneous and Average Velocity
Instantaneous velocity vector: As Δt goes to zero, the velocity vector, becomes tangent to the
path of the particle at time t.
Instantaneous and Average Velocity
Instantaneous and Average Velocity
Numerical
The position function of a particle is
r⃗(t) = 2.0 t2 i + (2.0 + 3.0t) j + 5.0t km
(a) What is the instantaneous velocity and speed at t = 2.0 s?
(b) What is the average velocity between 1.0 s and 3.0 s?
Solution
We see the average velocity is the same as the instantaneous velocity at t = 2.0 s, as a result of the velocity function being linear. This need not be
the case in general. In fact, most of the time, instantaneous and average velocities are not the same.
Exercise
The position function of a particle is r⃗ (t) = 3.0t3 i + 4.0 j. (a)
What is the instantaneous velocity at t = 3 s? (b) Is the average
velocity between 2 s and 4 s equal to the instantaneous
velocity at t = 3 s?
Kinematics of Particle
If a body moves at the rate of 45 kmph for 6
minutes then 90 kmph for 10 minutes and
finally 8 kmph for 3 minutes. What is the
average velocity in the total interval?
A car is moving with a velocity of 20m/s. The car is brought to rest by applying
brakes in 4 secs. Determine a) the retardation and b) distance travelled by the car
after
applying brakes.
on turning a corner a motorist rushing at 20m/s, find a child on the road 50m
ahead. He instantly stops the engine and applies brakes so as to stop the car with in
10
m of the child. Calculate a) retardation and b) time required to stop the car.
A burglar’s car had a start with an acceleration of 2m/s2. A police vigilant party
came after 5 seconds and continued to chase the burglar’s car with a uniform
velocity
of 20m/s. Find the time taken in which the police van will overtake the car.
Projectile Motion
Defining the positive direction to be upward, the components of acceleration
Horizontal Motion
Vertical Motion
Projectile Motion
Projectile motion is the motion of an object thrown or projected
into the air, subject only to acceleration as a result of
gravity.
Examples include meteors as they enter Earth’s atmosphere,
fireworks, and the motion of any ball in sports.
Such objects are called projectiles and their path is called a
trajectory.
Motions along perpendicular axes are independent and
thus can be analyzed separately.
Motion of Projectiles
Projectile motion is a specific type of curvilinear motion where an object
is thrown into the air and moves under the influence of gravity.
The key characteristics include:
The trajectory is parabolic.
The horizontal motion is uniform while vertical motion is uniformly
accelerated due to gravity.
Components of Motion
In analyzing motion, various components are considered:
Tangential Component: Relates to the change in speed along the path of motion.
Normal Component: Pertains to the change in direction of the velocity vector.
Radial Component: Involves forces directed towards or away from a center point.
Transverse Component: Refers to motion perpendicular to a reference direction.
Plane Curvilinear motion
The Independence of Perpendicular Motions
The two-dimensional curved path of the horizontally thrown ball
is composed of two independent one-dimensional motions
(horizontal and vertical).
The key to analyzing such motion, called projectile motion, is to
resolve it into motions along perpendicular directions.
Resolving two-dimensional motion into perpendicular
components is possible because the components are
independent.
This case is true for ideal conditions only. In the real world, air resistance affects the speed of the object in both
directions.
An aircraft moving horizontal at 108 kmph at an altitude of 1000m towards a
target on the ground, releases a bomb which hits it. Estimate the horizontal distance of
the aircraft from the target, when it released the bomb. Calculate also the direction
and
magnitude of the velocity with which the bomb hits the target.
A shot is fired horizontally from the top of a tower with velocity of 100 m/s.
If the shot hits the ground after 2 sec, find the height of the tower and the distance
from
the foot of the tower, where the strikes the ground.
An airplane is flying on a straight level course at 200 kmph at a height of
1000m above the ground. An anti-craft gun located on the ground fires a shell with
an
initial velocity of 300m/s at the instant when the plane is vertically above it. At what
inclination, to the horizontal should the gun be fired to hit the plane? What time after
firing the gun shell will hit the plane? What will then be the horizontal distance of the
plane from the gun?
Numerical
During a fireworks display, a shell is shot into the air with an initial speed of 70.0
m/s at an angle of 75.0° above the horizontal, as illustrated in Figure. The fuse
is timed to ignite the shell just as it reaches its highest point above the ground.
(a) Calculate the height at which the shell explodes.
(b) How much time passes between the launch of the shell and the explosion?
(c) What is the horizontal displacement of the shell when it explodes?
(d) What is the total displacement from the point of launch to the highest point?
Solution
The highest point in any trajectory, called the apex, is reached when vy = 0.
Another way of finding the time is by using y = y0 + 0.5(v0y + vy)t.
Numerical
A tennis player wins a match at Arthur Ashe stadium and hits a
ball into the stands at 30 m/s and at an angle 45° above the
horizontal. On its way down, the ball is caught by a spectator
10 m above the point where the ball was hit.
(a) Calculate the time it takes the tennis ball to reach the
spectator. (b) What are the magnitude and direction of the
ball’s velocity at impact?
This example asks for the final velocity. Thus, we recombine the vertical and horizontal results to obtain v⃗ at final
time t
Time of Flight
Trajectory
This trajectory equation is of the form y = ax + bx2, which is an
equation of a parabola with coefficients
Range
Angle is same
It is interesting that the same range is found
for two initial launch angles (15o red curve Initial Speed is same
and 75o green curve) that sum to 90°, if the
initial speed is same.
The projectile launched with the smaller
angle has a lower apex than the higher
angle, but they both have the same range.
A projectile is aimed at a mark on a horizontal plane through the point of
projection. It falls 12m short when the angle of projection is 15o while it overshoots the
mark by 24m when the angle is 45o. Find the angle of projection to hit the mark.
Assume
no air resistance.
Numerical
A golfer finds himself in two different situations on different holes. On the
second hole he is 120 m from the green and wants to hit the ball 90 m and let it
run onto the green. He angles the shot low to the ground at 30° to the
horizontal to let the ball roll after impact. On the fourth hole he is 90 m from the
green and wants to let the ball drop with a minimum amount of rolling after
impact. Here, he angles the shot at 70° to the horizontal to minimize rolling
after impact. Both shots are hit and impacted on a level surface.
(a) What is the initial speed of the ball at the second hole? (b) What is the initial
speed of the ball at the fourth hole? (c) Write the trajectory equation for both
cases. (d) Graph the trajectories.
If the two golf shots in the above numerical were launched at the same speed, which shot would have the greatest range?
Solution
Second Hole
Fourth Hole
The initial speed for the shot at 70° is
greater than the initial speed of the shot at
30°.
Note that two projectiles launched at
the same speed but at different angles
have the same range if the launch
angles add to 90°.
The launch angles in this example add to
give a number greater than 90°.
Thus, the shot at 70° has to have a greater
launch speed to reach 90 m, otherwise it
would land at a shorter distance.
Three different coordinate systems to analyze plane
curvilinear motion are:
•Rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates
•Normal-tangential (path) coordinates
•Polar coordinates
Normal and tangential
Normal and tangential
No derivative is taken for radius of curvature. It is assumed constant, as it introduce
higher order term which will vanish with taking limits.
Normal and tangential
A car travels along the level curved road with a speed
which is decreasing at the constant rate of 0.6 m/s
each second. The speed of the car as it passes point A
is 16 m/s. Calculate the magnitude of the total
acceleration of the car as it passes point B which is
120 m along the road from A. The radius of curvature
of the road at B is 60 m.
Typo in theta, Correct answer is
107.82 or -72.17 deg
Numerical
A certain rocket maintains a horizontal attitude of its axis during the powered
phase of its flight at high altitude. The thrust imparts a horizontal component of
acceleration of 6 m /s2, and the downward acceleration component is the
acceleration due to gravity at that altitude, which is g = 9 m /s 2.
At the instant represented, the velocity of the mass centre G of the rocket along the
15° direction of its trajectory is 20*103 kmph
For this position determine
(a) the radius of curvature of the flight trajectory,
(b) the rate at which the speed v is increasing,
(c) the angular rate of the radial line from G to the centre of curvature C, and
(d) the vector expression for the total acceleration a of the rocket.
Numerical
Now observes that the radius of curvature appears in the expression for the
normal component of acceleration, so use n- and t-coordinates to describe the
motion of G.
The n- and t-components of the total acceleration are obtained by resolving the
given horizontal and vertical accelerations into their n- and t-components and
then combining.
Circular motion
Polar Coordinates
Position vector of the particle at A
Negative sign missing
Time derivative of unit vectors
Direction opposite to er unit vector, so negative sign is used for change in detheta
Direction opposite to er unit vector
Direction along etheta unit vector
ethetadash
Position vector
The position vector r to the particle at A has a magnitude equal to the radial
distance r and a direction specified by the unit vector er. Thus, express the location
of the particle at A by the vector
Numerical
A flywheel increases its speed from 30rpm to 60rpm in 10sec. Calculate a) the
angular acceleration and b) number of revolutions made by the wheel in these
10
seconds.
Solution
A pulley starting from rest is given an acceleration of 0.5 rad/s 2. What will be
its speed in rpm at the end of 2min? If then it is uniformly retarded at the rate of 0.3
rad/s2, in how many minutes the pulley will come to rest.
RELATIVE MOTION
Till now have described particle motion using coordinates
referred to fixed reference axes.
The displacements, velocities and accelerations so
determined are termed absolute.
It is not always possible or convenient, however, to use
a fixed set of axes to describe or to measure motion.
In addition, there are many
engineering problems for which the analysis of motion is simplified by using
measurements made with respect to a moving reference system.
These measurements,
when combined with the absolute motion of the moving coordinate system, enable us
to determine the absolute motion in question. This approach is called a relative-motion
analysis.
Now consider two particles A and B which may have separate curvilinear
motions in a given plane or in parallel planes, fig.4.48. We will arbitrarily attach the
origin of a set of translating (nonrotating) axes x-y to particle B and
observe the motionof A from our moving position on B.
Two ships A and b leave a part at the same time. The ship A is travelling 45o north
– west at 32kmph and ship B 40o south of west at 24kmph. Determine a) the speed of
the ship B relative to ship A and b) after what time they will be 150km apart?
Application of Newtons second law
of motion
The 50kg crate as shown in fig rests on a horizontal surface for which the
coefficient of kinetic friction is = 0.3. If the crate is subjected to a 400-N towing
Force with is oriented at 30 degree angle with horizontal plane, determine the
velocity of the crate in 3 seconds starting from rest.
Note we have to
use mass m in
horizontal
equilibrium
equation. (m*a =
Force in Newtons)
Acceleration in x direction
is 5.185 m/s2
Fn = F sin (alpha), normal to the displacement does no work.
Similar to velocity, Velocity is a function of tangential component only, Normal
component do not play a role.
Work is positive if the working component F is in the direction of the
displacement and negative if it is in the opposite direction. Forces which do work are
termed active forces. Constraint forces which do no work are termed reactive forces.
Work and Curvilinear Motion
Power
Power is clearly a scalar quantity, and in SI it has the units of N-m/s = J/s.
The ratio of the work done by a machine to the work done on the machine during
the same time interval is called the mechanical efficiency
Calculate the velocity v of the 50kg crate when it reaches the bottom of the
chute at B if it is given an initial velocity of 4m/s down the chute at A. The
coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.3.(Reaction force is also given)
A train of mass 300 tonnes moves down a slope of 1 in 200 at 45 kmph with
the engine developing 75 kW. Find the power required to pull the train up the slope with
the same velocity.
IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM:
the equations of work and energy, which are obtained by integrating the equation of
motion F = ma with respect to the displacement of the particle. It found that the velocity
changes could be expressed directly in terms of the work done or in terms of the overall
changes in energy.
it will integrate the equation of motion with respect to time rather than
displacement. This approach leads to the equations of impulse and momentum.
These equations greatly facilitate the solution of many problems in which the applied
forces act during extremely short periods of time (as in impact problems) or over
specified intervals of time.
linear momentum G = mv of the particle.
states that the resultant of all forces acting on a particle equals its time
rate of change of linear momentum.
These equations may be applied independently of one another.
the initial linear momentum of the body plus the linear impulse applied
to it equals its final linear momentum.
Scalar components
These three scalar impulse-momentum equations are completely independent.
expresses the principle of conservation of linear momentum.
A 2000 kg wagon is pushed along the rails with a constant force of 400N. If
the resistance due to friction is 100N, determine the time taken for the wagon to reach
a speed of 6m/s.
A tennis player strikes the tennis ball with her racket when the ball is at the
uppermost point of its trajectory as shown in fig. The horizontal velocity of the
ball just before impact with the racket is v1 =15m/s, and just after impact its velocity is
v2 =21m/s directed at the 15o angle as shown. If the 60 gram ball is in contact with the
racket for 0.02 seconds, determine the magnitude of the average force R exerted by the
racket on the ball. Also determine the angle made by R with the horizontal.
Angular momentum
The angular momentum then is a vector perpendicular to the plane A
defined by r and v. The sense of HO is clearly defined by the right-hand
rule for cross products.
The magnitude of the moment of mv about O is
simply the linear momentum mv times the moment arm r sin theta or mvr sin theta , which
is the magnitude of the cross product
Angular momentum is the moment of linear momentum and must not be
confused with linear momentum.
Rate of change of angular
momentum
The Angular Impulse-Momentum
Principle:
the initial angular momentum of the particle plus the angular impulse
applied to it equals its final angular momentum.
Conservation of angular momentum
The total angular momentum for the system of the two particles
remains constant during the interval, and we write
A flywheel having mass 500kg has hub 100mm in diameter supported on
bearings. The flywheel has a radius of gyration of 500mm and it is turning at 240rpm.
The coefficient of friction is 0.08. Determine the elapsed time until the flywheel comes
to rest because of bearing friction.
Kinetics of system