Solution
Solution, in chemistry, a homogenous mixture of two or more substances in relative amounts that can be varied
continuously up to what is called the limit of solubility. The term solution is commonly applied to the liquid state of matter,
however, it can varies in different states as follows:
Table: Types of Solutions
Solution Solute Solvent Examples
gas gas gas air, natural gas
liquid gas liquid seltzer water (CO2 gas in water)
alcoholic beverage (ethanol in
liquid liquid liquid
water), gasoline
liquid solid liquid tea, salt water
H2H2 in PdPd (used
solid gas solid
for H2H2 storage)
mercury in silver or gold
solid solid liquid (amalgam often used in
dentistry)
Link:[Link]
_Physical_Properties/13.01%3A_Types_of_Solutions%3A_Some_Terminology
Units of concentration
Molarity, molality, Normality & Mole fraction
Distinction between molarity or normality and molality: volume and hence temperature
depedent.
No of moles of solute
Mole fraction =
No of moles of solute + No of moles of solvent
Ø 20g NaOH pelate dissolved into 1kg water at 4oC. Calculate the molality and mole fraction of the solution.
Ø 26.50g Na2CO3 was dissolved into water to get 500mL solution.
Ø What is the molar concentration of 20% NaOH solution
Ø 2g NaCl and 3g HCl dissolve and prepare 250 mL solution. (i) Calculate the molar concentration of each
entity. (ii) Calculate the no,. of Na+, Cl-, H+ ions present in the solution. (iii) Determine the remaining
concentration of HCl and calculate the number of HCl molecule after the reaction.
Ø Molarity to ppm conversiton
Other ways of expression for concentration in the technical field: w/w; w/v; v/v or percentage (%)
Equivalent weight
Link: [Link]
Equivalent weight, in chemistry, the quantity of a substance that exactly reacts with, or is equal to the combining value of,
an arbitrarily fixed quantity of another substance in a particular reaction. Substances react with each other
in stoichiometric, or chemically equivalent, proportions, and a common standard has been adopted. The concept of
equivalent weight has been displaced by that of molar mass, which is the mass of one mole of a substance.
The equivalent weight of an element is its gram atomic weight divided by its valence (combining power). Some equivalent
weights are: silver (Ag), 107.868 grams (g); magnesium (Mg), 24.312/2 g; aluminum (Al), 26.9815/3 g
For an element, the equivalent weight is the quantity that combines with or replaces 1.008 g of hydrogen or 7.9997 g of
oxygen; or, the weight of an element that is liberated in an electrolysis (chemical reaction caused by an electric current) by
the passage of 1 faraday (96,485.3321233 coulombs) of electricity
For compounds that function as oxidizing or reducing agents (compounds that act as acceptors or donors of electrons), the
equivalent weight is the gram molecular weight divided by the number of electrons lost or gained by each molecule—e.g.,
potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in acid solution, 158.038/5 g; potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7), 294.192/6 g; and sodium
thiosulfate (Na2S2O3·5H2O), 248.1828/1 g.
For all oxidizing and reducing agents (elements or compounds), the equivalent weight is the weight of the
substance that is associated with the loss or gain of one mole (6.023 × 1023) of electrons.
The equivalent weight of an acid or base for neutralization reactions or of any other compound that acts by double
decomposition is the quantity of the compound that will furnish or react with or be equivalent to 1.008 g of hydrogen ion or
17.0074 g of hydroxide ion—e.g., hydrochloric acid (HCl), 36.461 g; sulfuric acid (H2SO4), 98.078/2 g; sodium hydroxide
(NaOH), 40 g; or sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), 105.9892/ 2 g.
The equivalent weight of a substance may vary with the type of reaction it undergoes.
Thus, potassium permanganate reacting by double decomposition has an equivalent weight equal to its gram molecular
weight, 158.038/1 g; as an oxidizing agent under different circumstances it may be reduced to the manganate ion (MnO42−),
to manganese dioxide (MnO2), or to the manganous ion (Mn2+), with the equivalent weights of 158.038/1 g, 158.038/3 g,
and 158.038/5 g, respectively.
Given 0.1M 250mL solution of KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7
(i) Calculate the number of molecule, K+ ion or Oxygen atoms
Colligative properties of Dilute solutions
There are 4 properties:
1. Lowering of V.P
2. Elevation of B.P
3. Depression of F.P
4. Osmotic pressure
Colligative properties of Dilute solutions
Raoult’s Law of
Elevation of B.P. Depression of F.P.
2022.01.26 Online class material
Recapitualtion of previous classes on
Chemical Kinetics
ü Rate of reaction; Rate law; Order of reaction; Molecularity of reaction.
ü Mathematical expression of rate constant for (a) Zero order, (b) First order & (c) Second order
reaction.
v Mathematical problem solving
v Factors affecting rate expressions
Zero order x
k= Rate is independent of initial concentration
t
0.693 Half-life is independent of initial
First order 1 a Half-life, t1/2 =
k = ln k concentration
t a–x
1 x 1 H.F is inversely proportional to
Second order k = Half-life, t1/2 =
t a(a – x) k a the initial concentration
Ø 1st order reaction never ends completely 1 a
k = ln
t a–x
a
Or, ekt = At the end of the reaction x = a;
a–x
a
Or, ekt =
0
Or, ekt = ∞
Ø Units of k
k = 0; then t = ∞; That means, it takes
infinite time to complete the reaction. Zero order: M/s or Ms-1
First order: 1/s or. s-1
• That is why we can say first order
2nd order: M-1s-1 or Lmol-1s-1
reaction never ends.
Draw the conc. vs time curve of 1st/2nd order reaction
Graph-1 q How can one identify order of
Concentration (in M)
reaction from the graph?
q Using graph-1 calculate the time required for a
reaction to complete 90%.
q A 1st order reaction with initial concentration
0.6 mol/dm3 reduce at 0.2 mol/dm3 in 5 mins.
(i) calculate k & t1/2 for this reaction.
q 500 ml solution of NaHCO3 contained 21 g.
Neutralization of HCl with this solution follow
Time (in min) 1st order & k = 1.4x10-2 s-1 . Calculate the time
required to complete 66.67%.
q k of a reaction is 1.5x10-3 Lmol-1s-1. What is the
half-life of that reaction?
Graph-2
Concentration (in M)
Time (in min)
2022-02-01 Factors affecting rate of reaction
1. Temperature 2. Pressure 3. Concentration 4. Catalyst 5. Surface area of reactant
6. Presence of light 7. Sound 8. Nature of reactants
v Effect of temperature on rate of reaction: Arrhenius equation
Ea A = Arrhenius factor
k =Ae
- RT Ea = Activation energy of reaction
R = Molar gas constant
Ea k=?
lnk = lnA -
RT
Ea
Y = mX + C m=- R
lnk
Ea
C = lnA - R
R= 8.314 Jmol-1K-1
1
T
Ø 2N2O5 = 4NO2 + O2 Plot of lnk vs 1/T gives a line with slope 1.2x10-4 K. What is the
actiivation energy (Ea) of the reaction?