Unit 2 Alcohols

Alcohols have several properties that make them suitable for use as engine fuels. Key
properties include:

1. High Octane Rating: Alcohols like ethanol and methanol have high octane numbers,
which helps prevent engine knocking and allows for higher compression ratios in
engines, improving efficiency and performance.
2. Oxygen Content: Alcohols contain oxygen in their chemical structure, which leads to
more complete combustion and reduced emissions of pollutants like carbon monoxide
and unburned hydrocarbons.
3. Renewable Source: Alcohols, especially ethanol, can be produced from renewable
resources like sugarcane, corn, or other biomass, making them more sustainable than
fossil fuels.
4. Lower Energy Content: While this is a disadvantage in terms of fuel economy, it can be
an advantage for controlling engine temperatures, as alcohols absorb more heat during
evaporation, contributing to cooler combustion.
5. Miscibility with Gasoline: Alcohols can be blended with gasoline in various proportions
(e.g., E10 or E85) without significant engine modification, allowing their use in existing
internal combustion engines.
6. Lower Emissions: Alcohol fuels produce lower levels of greenhouse gases and other
harmful emissions compared to gasoline, making them environmentally friendly.
7. Cooling Effect: Alcohols have a higher latent heat of vaporization, meaning they absorb
more heat as they vaporize, which can help reduce engine temperature and knock
tendency.

Here's a table comparing the properties of alcohols (ethanol and methanol) and gasoline blends,
along with the improvements they bring when used as engine fuels:

Property Pure Ethanol Methanol Gasoline- Gasoline- Improveme

Gasolin (E100) (M100) Ethanol Methanol nts Using
e Blend Blend Alcohols
(E10/E85) (M10/M85)

Octane 87–92 108–115 110–115 E10: M10: Higher

Rating 89–93 90–93 octane
E85: M85: ratings
100–105 100–105 reduce
engine
knock,
allowing
higher
compression
 ratios and
improving
efficiency.

Energy 44.4 26.8 20.1 E10: M10: Lower

Content 42–43 41–42 energy
(MJ/kg) E85: M85: content, but
30–33 27–30 leads to
cleaner
combustion
and more
efficient fuel
use.

Air-Fuel 14.7:1 9:1 6.5:1 E10: M10: Alcohols

Ratio 14.1:1 13.8:1 require
(Stoichiomet E85: 9.8:1 M85: 7.5:1 richer
ric) mixtures, but
provide
more
complete
combustion
and reduce
emissions.

Latent Heat 305 840 1100 E10: 375 M10: 460 Higher latent
of E85: 780 M85: 1000 heat
Vaporization absorbs
(kJ/kg) more heat,
leading to
lower engine
temperature
s and
reduced
knocking.

Emissions Higher Lower Lower Reduced Reduced Significant

(CO2, CO, CO, CO2, CO2, CO2 and CO2 and reduction in
NOx) CO2, reduced reduced pollutants pollutants greenhouse
NOx CO, lower CO, lower depending depending gases and
NOx NOx on blend on blend harmful
pollutants.
Renewability Non-ren Renewable Renewable Renewabl Renewabl Use of
ewable (produced (produced e e renewable
(fossil from from contributio contributio sources
fuel) biomass) biomass) n depends n depends reduces
on blend on blend reliance on
fossil fuels
and
improves
sustainability
.

Combustion Good Higher due Higher due Higher Higher More

Efficiency to oxygen to oxygen efficiency efficiency complete
content content in in combustion
oxygenate oxygenate with fewer
d blends d blends unburned
hydrocarbon
s.

Cold Start Excellen Poor (at Poor (at E10: Good M10: Requires
Performance t lower lower E85: Poor Good special
temperatur temperatur at low M85: Poor starting aids
es) es) temperatur at low at low
es temperatur temperature
es s, but
performs
well in
warmer
climates.

Corrosivenes Low High (can High (can Slightly Higher Alcohols can
s damage damage higher with with corrode
engine engine ethanol methanol certain
parts) parts) blends blends materials in
the engine,
requiring
modified
components.

Improvements of Using Alcohols:

● Higher Octane Rating: Alcohols increase the octane number, reducing engine knock
and allowing engines to run more efficiently at higher compression ratios.
 ● Lower Emissions: Due to the oxygen content, alcohols help in cleaner combustion,
reducing carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxide emissions.
● Renewability: Ethanol and methanol can be derived from renewable resources like
biomass, reducing dependency on fossil fuels and contributing to a reduction in overall
carbon footprint.
● Cooling Effect: Alcohols absorb more heat during vaporization, which lowers engine
temperatures, further reducing the risk of knocking and increasing engine durability.

The performance and emission analysis of using alcohols and their blends in spark-ignition (SI)
engines can be understood by examining key parameters. These parameters directly affect
engine efficiency, power output, fuel economy, and the environmental impact of the engine's
operation. Here are the main parameters analyzed for performance and emissions:

Performance Analysis Parameters:

1. Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE):

○ Definition: BTE is the ratio of the engine's power output to the energy content of
the fuel. It measures how efficiently the fuel energy is converted into useful
mechanical work.
○ Effect of Alcohols: Alcohols like ethanol and methanol typically increase BTE
due to their higher octane number, allowing higher compression ratios and more
efficient combustion. The oxygen content in alcohols also aids in more complete
combustion, contributing to better thermal efficiency.
2. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC):
○ Definition: BSFC is the amount of fuel consumed per unit of brake power output
(g/kWh). Lower BSFC indicates better fuel efficiency.
○ Effect of Alcohols: Alcohols have lower energy content than gasoline, so
engines running on alcohol fuels or alcohol-gasoline blends generally show
higher BSFC values. This means more fuel is needed to generate the same
amount of power, despite other performance improvements.
3. Brake Power and Torque:
○ Definition: Brake power refers to the usable power output of an engine, while
torque is a measure of the engine’s rotational force.
○ Effect of Alcohols: The higher octane rating of alcohols enables engines to run
at higher compression ratios, potentially increasing brake power and torque.
However, due to lower energy content, pure alcohols may result in slightly lower
power output unless the engine is specifically optimized for alcohol fuels. Blends
(E10, E85) tend to offer a good balance, with modest increases in power over
pure gasoline.
4. Volumetric Efficiency:
○ Definition: Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual amount of air-fuel
mixture the engine draws in, compared to the theoretical maximum.
 ○ Effect of Alcohols: Alcohol fuels have a cooling effect due to their higher latent
heat of vaporization, which increases the air density entering the engine, thus
improving volumetric efficiency.
5. Engine Knock Tendency:
○ Definition: Knock is the premature ignition of the air-fuel mixture, causing
inefficient combustion and potential engine damage.
○ Effect of Alcohols: The higher octane rating of alcohols (ethanol, methanol)
reduces knock tendency. This allows the engine to operate at higher
compression ratios or with more aggressive ignition timing, improving overall
performance and efficiency.

Emission Analysis Parameters:

1. Carbon Monoxide (CO):

○ Definition: CO is a byproduct of incomplete combustion, which occurs when
there isn't enough oxygen to fully oxidize carbon in the fuel.
○ Effect of Alcohols: Alcohols improve combustion efficiency due to their oxygen
content, resulting in lower CO emissions. Blends like E10 and E85 also
significantly reduce CO compared to pure gasoline.
2. Hydrocarbons (HC):
○ Definition: Hydrocarbons are unburned or partially burned fuel, which is a major
pollutant contributing to smog formation.
○ Effect of Alcohols: The use of alcohols leads to more complete combustion,
reducing hydrocarbon emissions. However, in some cases, cold-start conditions
with high alcohol content (e.g., E85, M85) may increase HC emissions
temporarily due to incomplete vaporization.
3. Nitrogen Oxides (NOx):
○ Definition: NOx emissions are formed when nitrogen and oxygen from the air
combine under high temperatures, contributing to air pollution and smog.
○ Effect of Alcohols: NOx emissions are typically reduced when using alcohols
because alcohol fuels burn at lower peak temperatures compared to gasoline,
which slows down the formation of NOx. Additionally, the cooling effect from
alcohol evaporation further helps reduce NOx emissions.
4. Carbon Dioxide (CO2):
○ Definition: CO2 is the primary greenhouse gas emitted from combustion
engines, formed as a result of complete combustion of the carbon in the fuel.
○ Effect of Alcohols: Alcohols are considered renewable fuels when derived from
biomass, and while their combustion still produces CO2, the overall carbon
footprint is lower compared to gasoline. This is because the CO2 released is
offset by the CO2 absorbed during the growth of the biomass used to produce
alcohols.
5. Particulate Matter (PM):
○ Definition: PM consists of tiny particles, mainly soot, produced during incomplete
combustion. It is harmful to human health and contributes to air pollution.
 ○ Effect of Alcohols: Alcohols produce lower particulate matter compared to
gasoline due to cleaner combustion. This is particularly beneficial in reducing
emissions from direct-injection engines, which tend to have higher PM emissions
when running on gasoline.

Overall Benefits of Using Alcohols in SI Engines:

● Performance Improvements:
○ Higher Compression Ratios: Due to the higher octane rating, engines using
alcohols can run at higher compression ratios, leading to better power and
efficiency.
○ Improved Combustion: The oxygen content in alcohols supports more complete
combustion, improving brake thermal efficiency and reducing unburned fuel
waste.
○ Cooling Effect: The high latent heat of vaporization of alcohols helps cool the
intake charge, improving volumetric efficiency and reducing knock tendency.
● Emission Reductions:
○ Lower CO and HC: Alcohols promote more complete combustion, significantly
reducing harmful CO and HC emissions.
○ Lower NOx: The lower combustion temperature with alcohols reduces NOx
formation, making the engine cleaner.
○ Renewable and Cleaner: Alcohols derived from renewable sources have a
smaller carbon footprint, and their combustion results in lower CO2 and
particulate matter emissions.

Challenges:

● Fuel Economy: Due to lower energy content, engines running on alcohols (especially
pure ethanol or methanol) tend to have higher BSFC, which can negatively affect fuel
economy.
● Cold Start Issues: Alcohols, especially in high concentrations (E85, M85), suffer from
poor cold-start performance, requiring engine modifications or additives to mitigate the
issue.
● Corrosiveness: Alcohols can be corrosive to certain engine components, requiring fuel
system modifications to ensure durability.

Modifications Required for SI (Spark-Ignition) Engines Using Alcohol Fuels:

1. Fuel System Modifications:

○ Corrosion-Resistant Materials: Alcohols are more corrosive than gasoline,
especially methanol. Fuel lines, injectors, and fuel tanks need to be made of or
 coated with corrosion-resistant materials like stainless steel or specially designed
polymers.
○ Fuel Pump and Injectors: Alcohols have lower lubricity compared to gasoline,
which can wear out fuel pumps and injectors faster. Using lubricated fuel pumps
or those specifically designed for alcohol compatibility is essential.
2. Fuel-Air Mixture Control:
○ Recalibration of Fuel Injection: Alcohols require richer air-fuel mixtures due to
their lower energy content and stoichiometric air-fuel ratio (e.g., 9:1 for ethanol
versus 14.7:1 for gasoline). The fuel injection system must be recalibrated to
deliver a higher volume of fuel.
○ Wider Injector Nozzles: Alcohol blends like E85 require more fuel to produce
the same power as gasoline, so wider injector nozzles or increased injector flow
rates may be necessary.
3. Ignition System Enhancements:
○ Higher Energy Ignition System: Alcohols, particularly in cold conditions, require
a higher energy spark to ignite properly. This may involve using higher voltage
ignition coils, stronger spark plugs, or multi-spark ignition systems.
○ Spark Plug Design: Alcohols burn cooler than gasoline, so spark plugs designed
for alcohol fuels need to have appropriate heat ranges and be capable of
withstanding different combustion characteristics.
4. Cold-Start System:
○ Heated Intake Air or Fuel Systems: Ethanol and methanol have higher
vaporization temperatures, making cold starts difficult, especially in colder
climates. Modifications like heated fuel injectors, electric heaters for intake air, or
fuel pre-heaters are necessary to facilitate easier starting in low temperatures.
5. Compression Ratio Adjustment:
○ Higher Compression Ratios: Since alcohols have higher octane ratings than
gasoline, SI engines can be modified to operate at higher compression ratios
(e.g., 11:1 or higher). This improves power output and thermal efficiency by
taking advantage of the knock resistance of alcohol fuels.
6. Fuel Sensor:
○ Flex-Fuel Sensors: In the case of flex-fuel vehicles (FFVs), a sensor is required
to detect the alcohol content in the fuel blend (e.g., E10, E85) to allow the engine
management system to adjust the air-fuel ratio and ignition timing accordingly.
7. Fuel Tank and Seals:
○ Larger Fuel Tank: Alcohol fuels have lower energy density, meaning more fuel is
required to travel the same distance. Larger fuel tanks may be necessary to
compensate for this reduced fuel economy.
○ Seals and Gaskets: Alcohols can degrade rubber and plastic components, so
fuel system seals, gaskets, and O-rings must be replaced with materials resistant
to alcohol degradation, such as fluorocarbon or ethylene-propylene.

Modifications Required for CI (Compression-Ignition) Engines Using

Alcohol Fuels:
CI engines are more challenging to adapt to alcohol fuels due to the different combustion
processes involved. Alcohols are less auto-ignitable than diesel, requiring more extensive
modifications for use in CI engines.

1. Dual-Fuel System (Alcohol-Diesel Blend):

○ Alcohol-Diesel Dual Injection: One common method to use alcohol in CI
engines is by employing a dual-fuel system, where diesel fuel is used for pilot
ignition and alcohol is injected separately into the combustion chamber.
Modifications are needed to install an additional alcohol injection system and
control its timing.
○ Separate Alcohol Tank and Fuel System: Since diesel and alcohol fuels have
different properties, a separate fuel system (tank, pump, and injectors) may be
required for the alcohol portion.
2. Ignition Assistance Systems:
○ Pilot Injection of Diesel: Alcohols are difficult to ignite under compression alone
due to their higher auto-ignition temperatures. Diesel is often injected as a pilot
fuel to initiate combustion, requiring modifications to the injection system and
control unit to handle dual-fuel operations.
○ Glow Plugs or Spark Ignition: In some experimental cases, glow plugs or even
spark ignition systems are added to CI engines to help ignite alcohol fuels,
especially methanol, which has a very high ignition temperature.
3. Compression Ratio Adjustments:
○ Increased Compression Ratio: To improve the auto-ignition of alcohols like
ethanol, the engine’s compression ratio might need to be increased. However,
this can also increase NOx emissions, requiring additional emission control
technologies.
4. Modified Injection Timing and Pressure:
○ Advanced Injection Timing: Since alcohols have slower flame speeds and
lower cetane numbers than diesel, the injection timing needs to be advanced to
ensure complete combustion.
○ Higher Injection Pressure: Alcohols require higher injection pressure for better
atomization in the combustion chamber, ensuring efficient mixing with air for
complete combustion.
5. Additives to Improve Cetane Number:
○ Cetane Improvers: Alcohols generally have a very low cetane number (a
measure of a fuel's auto-ignition quality), which leads to poor combustion in a CI
engine. Cetane improvers, such as alkyl nitrates or other additives, are often
required to enhance the ignition quality of the alcohol-diesel blend.
6. Turbocharging and Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR):
○ Turbocharging: Alcohol-fueled CI engines benefit from turbocharging to
increase intake pressure, improving power output and ensuring better
atomization of alcohol fuel.
 ○EGR System: Since alcohols can increase NOx formation under high-pressure
conditions, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) systems may need to be modified or
added to reduce peak combustion temperatures and NOx emissions.
7. Cooling Systems:
○ Increased Cooling Requirements: Alcohol fuels often cause a cooling effect
within the combustion chamber, but the higher combustion temperature in a CI
engine using alcohol-diesel blends can require additional cooling system
enhancements, such as larger radiators or more efficient cooling circuits.
8. Lubrication Modifications:
○ Improved Lubricants: Alcohol fuels tend to dilute engine oil, reducing its
lubricity. Therefore, higher-grade lubricants with better resistance to alcohol
dilution may be required to maintain proper engine lubrication and reduce wear.

Summary of Key Modifications for Alcohol Use in SI and CI Engines:

Parameter SI Engine (Spark Ignition) CI Engine (Compression
Ignition)

Fuel System Corrosion-resistant materials, Dual-fuel systems with separate

alcohol-compatible injectors alcohol fuel lines

Ignition System Higher energy ignition system, Pilot diesel injection, glow plugs, or
colder spark plugs modified ignition

Compression Ratio Higher compression ratio Higher compression ratio or use of

(optimized for alcohol) cetane improvers

Cold Start System Heated intake air or fuel system Additional heating, pilot diesel
injection

Fuel-Air Mixture Recalibration of fuel injection Advanced injection timing and

Control system higher injection pressure

Emissions Control Improved catalytic converters, EGR system, turbocharging, and

EGR system improved aftertreatment

Fuel Sensor and Flex-fuel sensor for alcohol Cetane improvers and control
Monitoring detection systems for dual-fuel operation

Lubrication Higher-grade oil due to alcohol Higher-grade oil with improved

dilution alcohol resistance

Feasibility Study of Alcohols in CI Engines as a Fuel

Using alcohols, such as ethanol and methanol, in Compression Ignition (CI) engines is a
promising approach to reduce emissions and diversify fuel sources. However, several technical,
economic, and environmental factors must be considered to assess the feasibility of alcohols as
CI engine fuels.

1. Alcohol Properties Relevant to CI Engines

a. Low Cetane Number:

● Alcohols like ethanol and methanol have low cetane numbers (~5-10), far lower than
diesel (~45-55). A high cetane number is crucial in CI engines because it determines the
fuel’s ability to auto-ignite under compression.
● Challenges: The low cetane number of alcohols results in a delayed or incomplete
ignition, making them unsuitable for conventional diesel CI engines without modification.

b. High Latent Heat of Vaporization:

● Alcohols absorb significant heat during vaporization, which cools the intake air. While
this can reduce NOx emissions, it can also lead to poor cold-start performance in CI
engines.
● Challenges: The cooling effect can hinder ignition during cold start or in cold climates.

c. High Oxygen Content:

● Alcohols contain oxygen, which helps achieve more complete combustion and reduces
emissions of particulate matter (PM) and unburnt hydrocarbons.
● Advantage: Reduced soot and particulate emissions compared to diesel fuel.

d. Low Energy Density:

● Alcohols have lower energy content compared to diesel. For instance, ethanol has ~26.9
MJ/kg, whereas diesel has ~42-45 MJ/kg.
● Challenges: To maintain the same power output, larger volumes of alcohol must be
injected, or the fuel tank size must be increased.

2. Technical Modifications Required for CI Engines Using Alcohols

a. Dual-Fuel Operation:

● One common approach is to operate CI engines in dual-fuel mode, where diesel is used
as a pilot fuel to initiate combustion, and alcohol is used as the main fuel. The pilot
injection of diesel helps overcome the low cetane number of alcohol.
 ● Feasibility: Dual-fuel operation is technically feasible and can be implemented with
modifications to the fuel injection system and engine control unit (ECU).

b. Cetane Enhancers:

● Cetane number improvers, such as alkyl nitrates, can be added to alcohols to improve
their ignition properties in CI engines. This method allows alcohols to achieve
auto-ignition more readily in compression ignition engines.
● Feasibility: Use of additives is a practical solution, but it increases fuel cost and
complexity in fuel formulation.

c. Direct Alcohol Injection with Diesel Pilot Ignition:

● In some systems, alcohol is injected directly into the cylinder, with a small amount of
diesel used for pilot ignition. This method optimizes the combustion process for alcohol
while ensuring reliable ignition.
● Challenges: This method requires advanced fuel injection systems and control
strategies, making it more expensive to implement.

d. Glow Plugs or Spark Assistance:

● In cold climates or during cold starts, additional ignition aids like glow plugs or spark
assistance may be necessary to ignite the alcohol fuel.
● Feasibility: Adding ignition assistance is technically possible but adds to engine
complexity and cost.

3. Performance Analysis of Alcohols in CI Engines

a. Power Output and Efficiency:

● Alcohol-fueled CI engines generally experience a reduction in power output due to the

lower energy density of alcohols compared to diesel.
● Challenge: The lower energy content of alcohols necessitates increased fuel
consumption, potentially reducing fuel efficiency unless engine modifications are made
to optimize the air-fuel mixture.

b. Combustion Characteristics:

● Alcohols exhibit more complete combustion due to their oxygen content, leading to fewer
unburned hydrocarbons and particulate emissions. However, alcohols also tend to have
a longer ignition delay due to their low cetane number.
● Advantages: Reduced soot and smoke emissions.
● Challenges: Prolonged ignition delay can cause issues in achieving optimal combustion
timing, reducing engine performance.
c. Emission Reduction:

● CO2: Alcohols, particularly bio-based ethanol and methanol, are renewable fuels that
reduce net CO2 emissions when burned, compared to fossil diesel.
● NOx and Particulate Matter: Alcohols help reduce NOx and PM emissions due to their
oxygen content and cleaner combustion.
● Challenges: Alcohols can increase aldehyde emissions, which need to be addressed
through after-treatment systems like catalytic converters.

d. Cold Start Performance:

● The high heat of vaporization of alcohols makes cold starts challenging in CI engines,
especially in colder climates.
● Solution: Modifications such as pre-heating the intake air, using glow plugs, or blending
with diesel or other additives can mitigate these issues.

4. Economic and Practical Feasibility

a. Availability and Cost:

● Ethanol and methanol are widely available in many regions, particularly where biofuels
are encouraged (e.g., Brazil, the USA). However, producing these alcohols at a large
scale requires substantial infrastructure.
● Challenges: Alcohol production can compete with food crops (for ethanol) or require
significant energy inputs (for methanol).
● Cost: Alcohols are often more expensive than diesel, especially when considering the
additional costs of engine modification and infrastructure development.

b. Infrastructure:

● Fuel Storage and Distribution: Alcohols are more corrosive than diesel, so
modifications to storage tanks, pipelines, and fuel dispensers are required.
● Challenges: Large-scale infrastructure changes, such as upgrading fuel stations and
retrofitting storage tanks, add to the overall cost of adopting alcohols as CI engine fuels.

5. Environmental and Policy Feasibility

a. Renewable Energy Source:

● Alcohols, particularly ethanol from biomass or methanol from renewable sources, can
help reduce dependency on fossil fuels, making them attractive in terms of energy
security and sustainability.
 ● Advantage: Countries aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adopt
renewable fuels may support alcohol use in CI engines through subsidies, tax breaks, or
mandates.

b. Emission Regulations:

● CI engines running on alcohols can meet stricter emission standards due to their lower
particulate matter and NOx emissions.
● Advantage: Governments may promote alcohol fuels in CI engines as part of their
strategies to comply with global environmental agreements (e.g., the Paris Agreement).

c. Land Use and Resource Competition:

● Challenges: The large-scale production of ethanol from food crops may raise concerns
about food security and land use, particularly in developing countries.
● Solution: Advancing second-generation biofuels (e.g., cellulosic ethanol) can reduce
competition with food production.