Practical Navigation.

Direction on the Earth’s Surface.

The Earth rotates about a fixed diameter called the Earth’s axis. The direction, towards which
the points on the Earth’s surface are carried along the earth’s axis, is known as East. The
opposite direction to the East is West.

The Earth’s pole from which the Earth’s rotation would be observed to be anti-clockwise
would be the North Pole. The other pole is called the South Pole. The direction 90º left of
east is known as North; the opposite of North is known as South. (Abbreviated to N, S, E,
and W). North, South, East and West are known as the Cardinal Points or directions. The
other directions are referred to as the two adjacent cardinal directions. The complete
‘compass’ i.e. the horizontal circle between the cardinal points is divided into 32 points. Each
point is 11 ¼ º. The directions which lie midway between two Cardinal Points are known as
half cardinal points. The points midway between cardinal and half cardinal points are known
as three letter points. The remaining points are known as points, e.g. N by E, N by W etc.

The points of the compass are not used so extensively nowadays, but every sailor should be
able to ‘box’ the compass.

At the present time, directions are usually given by either the quadrantal system which states
the number of degrees east or west of north or south or by more modern three figure notation
in which North is given by 000º, East 090º, South 180º and West 270º.

North

Longitude

Latitude

West East

South

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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
Terrestrial Position.

The Equator divides the Earth into northern and southern hemispheres, which give names to
north and south latitudes. The equator may be defined as the parallel of 0º latitude. Parallels
of latitude are small circles on the surface of the Earth parallel to the equator.

Secondaries to the equator are known as Meridians. The Latitude of a place may be defined
as the ‘arc of the meridian contained between the equator and the parallel of latitude contained
between the equator and the parallel of latitude of which the place lies’.

Whereas the datum parallel from which the latitude is measured is the equator, the datum
from which Longitude is measured is known as the Greenwich Meridian or the Prime
Meridian.

The Longitude of a place is the angle at the pole or the arc of the meridian between the
Greenwich meridian and the meridian of the place.

Parallel of Latitude North Pole

Equator

Earth’s Rotation Meridian

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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
Differences in Latitude and Longitude.

The difference of latitude ([Link]) between two places is the arc of the meridian contained
between the parallels of latitude between the two places.

The difference of longitude ([Link]) between two places is the lesser angle at the pole or the
shorter arc of the equator contained between the meridians of the two places.

Examples.

1. Latitude A: 49º 30’.0 N Longitude A: 027º 20’.0 W

Latitude B: 56º 20’.0 N Longitude B: 038º 12’.0 W
d. lat: 6º 50’.0 N d. long: 10º 52’.0 W

d’lat = 410’ N d’long = 652’ W

2. Latitude A: 00º 12’.0 S Longitude A: 000º 53’.0 W

Latitude B: 01º 35’.0 N Longitude B: 002º 09’.0 E
d. lat: 1º 47’.0 N d. long: 3º 02’.0 E

d’lat = 107’ N d’long = 182’ E

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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
Rhumb Line.

A line, which cuts all the meridians at the same angle, is a rhumb line. It is a line of constant
course for the ship to steer. This line will spiral towards the pole. This line is also known as a
Loxodrome.

Rhumb Line

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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
Distance along the Parallel of Latitude.

In order to find the course and distance along a rhumb line, it is necessary to determine the
distance along a parallel of latitude between the two given points.

FT is the arc of the parallel of latitude or the distance along the parallel of the meridians
between F and T. AB is the distance along the equator between the same meridians i.e. the
d’long between F and T. It is clear that the higher the latitude, the shorter FT becomes,
although the d’long does not alter.

To find the relationship between FT and AB;

Sections DFT and ABC are parallel and equiangular i.e. angle FDT = angle ACB.

Hence,

arc FT/radius DF = arc AB/radius CA

arc FT/arc AB = DF/CA = DF/CF = cos latitude

i.e. FT = AB cos lat

the distance along a parallel of latitude in nautical miles is equal to the d’long expressed in
minutes of arc multiplied by the cos of the latitude.

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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
 Rhumb Line F T

Departure.

Departure is the distance made good in an east-west direction in sailing from one place to
another along a rhumb line.

If a vessel sails from F to T as shown in the diagram, the distance covered in an east-west
direction will be equal to the distance along some parallel MN lying between the parallels
through F and T.

The latitude of this parallel is called the middle latitude between F and T. Hence, by the
formula previously established, dep. = d’long cos mid. lat.

Except when the difference of latitude is large or the latitudes themselves are high, the middle
latitude may be taken without appreciable error as the arithmetic mean of the two latitudes.
Thus, the approximate formula is:

Dep = d’long cos mean lat.

When two places are close to the equator but on opposite sides of it, the departure can be
taken as being equal to the d’long, otherwise the mercator sailing method must be used. In
general, the mean instead of the middle latitude may be used up to the distances of 600 n.
miles (the limit of traverse Tables).

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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
Short Distance Sailing.

The term short distance sailing means the distance of following a rhumb line track of a
distance not greater than 600’.

departure

d’lat

distance
course

The following formulae are used:

(i) Dep. = d’long cos mean lat

(ii) Dep. = dis. Sin co.

(iii) D’lat = dis cos co.

(iv) Tan co = dep/d’lat

(v) Dis. = d’lat/cos co. Dis. = d’lat sec co.

The formulae for short distance sailing are simple solutions of a plain right angled triangle.
To enable the navigators to solve this triangle quickly, they are provided with Traverse
Tables. If the ship alters course from time to time (traverse sailing), the traverse tables can
still be used to give her final position, known as the Dead Reckoning position (DR). A d.r.
position is one that has been worked up from the last observed position (from terrestrial or
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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
celestial) and makes no allowance for current and leeway. When estimated allowances for
current and leeway and any other disturbing factors have been applied to the d.r. position, the
position so obtained is known as an Estimated Position (EP). It is the most reliable position
obtainable without terrestrial, celestial or satellite positions.

Current.

The movement of surface layers of the sea, due to meteorological causes, is known as a
current. The direction towards which the water is moving is known as the Set. The speed at
which the current is moving is known as the Rate. The distance which a current sets in any
given interval of time is known as the Drift.

Days Work.

This is the term given to the calculation of a vessels estimated position after a series of
bearings, ranges and alterations of course and speed using Traverse Tables of the formulae
given above.

Use the following notes when completing a days work.

1. Draw a simple sketch to show the directions and distances involved so thzt you have
an approximate idea of the relative position of the terminal position to the origin.
2. Write down the reversed bearing and show the working for obtaining the distances.
Do not try to do them in your head.
3. Make a neat table for compass errors, courses, distances, d’lats, departures, etc. This
systematic approach will result in fewer errors.
4. Before proceeding CHECK that;
(a) you have not read the wrong columns in the traverse table
(b) you have used the correct columns in your table.

8
Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
Example of a Days Work.

At 1200 on a certain day, a vessel was fixed with Cape Otway (38º 52’.0 S, 143º 31’.0E)
bearing 343º(T) distant 12 miles. The vessel was steering 284º(T) at 15 knots. At 1520
course was altered to 304º(T). Find the vessel’s estimated position at 1700 if a tidal stream
was thought to set the vessel 083º(T) at 1 ½ knots throughout the period.

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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
 EP 1700

Cape Otway

Cape Otway bearing = 343º(T)

180º
Reverse bearing= 163º(T) Distance = 12 miles.
Cape Otoway Lat 38º 52’.0 S Long 143º 31’.0 E
163º(T) x 12 miles D’lat 11’.5 S D’long 4’.5 E Dep 3’.5
Ship’s Posn. 1200 Lat 39º 03’.5 S Long 143º 35’.5 E M’lat = 38º 57’.7 S

1200 to 1520 = 3.5 hrs at 15 knots = 50.0 miles.

1500 to 1700 = 1.67 hrs at 15 knots = 25.0 miles
1200 to 1700 = 5 hrs at 1.5 knots = 7.5 miles.
Course Dist D’lat Dep.
N S W E
284º(T) 50.0 12.1 48.5
304º(T) 25.0 14.0 20.7
083º(T) 7.5 0.9 7.4
Totals 27.0 7.4 69.2
Deduct -7.4
D’lat = Dep =
27.0 N 61.8 W

Ship’s Posn. 1200 Lat 39º 03’.5 S Long 143º 35’.5 E

d’lat 27’.0 N d’long 1º 19’.3 W ½ d’lat = 13’.5
EP 1700 Lat 38º 36’.5 S Long 142º 16’.2 E Mean Lat. 38º 50’.0 S

Answer: E.P. at 1700: Lat 38º 36’.5 S Long 142º 16’.2 E

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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
The Mercator Chart.

Scale.

Since the equator is shown on the charts as a straight line of definite length and the meridians
appear as straight lines perpendicular to it, the longitude scale is fixed by that length and is
constant in all latitudes.

Let the scale of any Mercator chart be ‘x’ cms to 1 minute of difference in longitude. Then,
since dep = d’long cos lat, the departure on the chart represented by ‘x’ cms is equal to 1’ cos
lat. That is, one mile on the chart in that particular latitude is represented by ‘x’ sec lat. cms.

The scale of latitude and distance in any part of a Mercator chart is therefore proportional to
the secant of latitude of that part.

For this reason, the amount of distortion in any latitude is governed by the secant of that
latitude, e.g. Greenland in 70º N, appears as broad as Africa on the equator, although Africa is
three times as broad as Greenland (Secant of 70º is 3.)

The Mercator Chart

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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
The Graduation of Charts.

Mercator charts are graduated along the left and right hand edges for latitude and distance,
and along the top and bottom for longitude. The longitude scale is used only for laying down
or taking off the longitude of a place, never for measuring a distance.

Measurement of Distance.

The length of a rhumb line between two places is referred to as the distance between them.

Meridional Parts.

Since the latitude and distance scale at any part of a Mercator chart is proportional to the
secant of that part, this scale continuously increases away from the equator until at the poles it
becomes infinite. The latitude scale thus cannot be readily compared with the fixed longitude
scale. To do so, both scales must be measured in the same fixed units. The fixed longitude
scale provides this unit, which is called a meridional part and is the length of one minute of
arc on that scale. The meridional parts of any latitude are the number of longitude units in the
length of a meridian between the equator and the parallel of latitude.

Meridional parts determine the length of a chart. They are not connected in any way with
distance on the Earth’s surface which is measured in nautical miles.

Meridional Parts for any latitude may be calculated or found by inspection in Nautical Tables
such as Norie’s or Burtons Tables.

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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
Difference of Meridional Parts.

DMP MP ‘T’

M
F
MP ‘F’

Equator

Point F does not lie on the equator but in a latitude which also has it’s meridional parts.
Therefore the number of meridional parts in the length of a meridian between the parallels
through F and T will be (Mer. Parts T – Mer. Parts F).

F M

MP F
Equator

DMP
MP T

When F and T are on opposite sides of the equator the difference in meridional parts is (Mer.
Parts T + Mer. Parts F).

The length MT is called the difference of meridional parts (d.m.p.).

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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
Mercator Sailing.

To find the course from the triangle FMT in the diagrams on the previous page;

Tan course = FM = d’long

TM d.m.p.

The course obtained from the above is the exact course, irrespective of the length FT. That
length as in plain sailing is obtained from the formula;

Distance = d’lat = d’lat sec course

Cos course

D’long

Dep.

M1 T

DMP D’lat

Co Distance
.

The figure above shows the relation between the two methods of finding the course. In
mercator sailing, the d’lat is extended to d.m.p. while the d’long remains unchanged. In plain
sailing, the d’lat remains unchanged and the d’long is compressed into departure.

Hence, d’long = tan course = departure

d.m.p d’lat

It must be remembered that the use of the departure formula involves the labour of finding an
accurate middle latitude if an error in the course is to be avoided.
Example 1.
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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
Given Latitude, 35º 15’.0 S, Course 140º(T). D’long = 12º. Find the latitude reached and the
distance sailed.

40º
d.m.p
.

D’long

To find the d.m.p.;

Tan course = d’long / d.m.p. therefore, d.m.p. = d’long / tan co.

d.m.p. = d’long / tan co. = 720/0.839099 = 858.06

MP of A 2249.12
d.m.p. 858.06
MP of B 3107.18

By inspection of tables, Latitude of B is = 46º 06’.0 S

Dist = d’lat sec co.

D’lat = (46º 06’.0 S – 35º 15’.0 S) = 10º 51’.0 = 651’.0

Dist = 651 / tan 40º = 651 / 0.839099 = 849.82 miles.

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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl
Example 2.

Calculate the true course and distance from

42º 28’.0 N, 025º 36’.0 W

to 36º 46’.0 N, 036º 10’.0 W.

Tan course = d’long / d.m.p.

Distance = d’lat / cos course

Find the d’lat and d’long.

42º 28’.0 N 025º 36’.0 W

36º 46’.0 N 036º 10’.0 W
d’lat = d’long =
5º 42’.0 = 10º 34’.0 =
342’.0 634’.0

Find the d.m.p.

MP 42º 28’.0 N 2803.72
MP 36º 46’.0 N 2361.12
d.m.p. =
442.60

Using the formulae;

Tan course = d’long / d.m.p. = 634 / 442.60 = S 55º 04’.8 W = 235º 04’.8 (T)

Distance = d’lat / cos course = 342’.0 / cos 55º 04’.8 = 597.5 miles.

Answers: Course = 235º 04’.8 (T). Distance = 597.5 miles.

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Dept. of NSc.
CIT, Bishopstown,
Cork, Irl