5

ENDOGENOUS PROCESSES AND ASSOCIATED

E
ndogenetic forces originate from the interior of the earth. These forces create mountains, plains, and plateaus.
They are responsible for the occurrence of volcanoes and earthquakes. They are slow but powerful forces acting
from within the earth’s crust. The crust either subside or rise up under the influence of these slow or sudden
forces. Slow endogenetic forces are also called Diastrophic forces. They disturb and deform the earth’s crust in the ways
of folding, faulting, upliftment and depression. Super slow processes whose effect becomes visible after thousands of
years. It’s of two types: Epeirogenetic (Vertical) and Orogenetic (Horizontal) forces.
In Greek, ‘epeiros’ means continent. Therefore, it signifies the movement of continents, either sinking or rising. Upward
forces influence the upliftment of the crust in relation to its surroundings; vertical forces influence the subsidence of the
crust in relation to its surroundings. Epeirogenetic forces do not disturb the horizontal strata of rocks, but may be at most
inclined or tilted.
In Greek, ‘orog’ means mountains. Hence, to relate with epeirogenous, orogenetic forces influence the formation of
mountains, but in a horizontal direction. In contrast to the epeirogenetic forces, they greatly disturb the horizontal strata
of rocks. Compression is a type of horizontal force which pushes against a body from its opposite sides. It leads to
folding of the rock strata. Tension is the pulling force. The rocks are pulled apart by tensional forces that act from within
the earth. It leads to faulting.

FOLDING: The bending of horizontal strata of rocks is called folding. It is caused by compression. It occurs when two
forces act horizontally towards a common point from opposite/either direction. When the limbs incline in different
directions from the top, it’s called anticline (up-folds) and its syncline when the limbs incline to the same directions into
the bottom (down-folds). Types of folds are:
I. Symmetrical: The two limbs are equally bent at an equal angle. Rarely seen. Open and upright.
II. Asymmetrical: One of the limbs when pushed too far so that the limb becomes long and gentle in slope while
the other is short and steep. Therefore one-side pressure is responsible for this formation.
III. Monoclinal: One limb of the fold is vertical. This is again due to one-sided force.
IV. Isoclinal: When the fold is pushed over one side so that both the sides of the limb incline to the same direction.
V. Recumbent: The isoclinal fold goes to such an extent that one limb is bent over the other and the two limbs are
parallel to each other.
VI. Overthrust: In case of acute folding, there is a super pressure of the compressional force that a fracture occurs in
the fold and one limb slides forward over another along the thrust plane. It is also called nappe.

FAULTING: Tension results in faulting. A stage comes when the rock strata cannot withstand the force and the crust
breaks. Consequently, one side of the rock strata moves up or down in relation to other sides. The break or rise and sink
is along a line of weakness/plane of fracture/fault plane. One part is up-thrown and the other is down-thrown, and the
exposed part is called fault scrap. Types of faults are:
I. Normal: Blocks move on either side of the fault plane in opposite directions because tensional forces act in
opposite directions. The hanging wall has its direction downwards and the fault plane is either vertical or steep.
This fault takes place due to tension in upper part of the crust.
II. Reverse: produced by compression. Blocks along the fault plane move towards each other. The slop is gentle and
the hanging wall’s direction is upwards.
III. Thrust: when one blocks rises over another along the fault plane, it forms thrust folds. Produced by compression
and is accompanied by folds.
IV. Step: When an area suffers several parallel faults in such a way that the crust is broken into thin layers/strata and
slope is on one side. It looks like a flight of stairs.

LANDFORM: MOUNTAINS
An uplifted part of the earth which stands conspicuously above the surrounding areas is called a mountain. Broad base,
extreme height, steep slope and narrow peak are the important characteristics of a mountain.
CLASSIFICATION:
I. Fold Mountains: Formed due to the folding of sedimentary rock strata.
Geosynclines: Low-lying narrow, elongated and shallow seas or lake basins where huge amounts of sediments are
deposited.
These sedimentary deposits suffered compression which was caused by tectonic forces working within the earth.
This compression led to the folding of sedimentary rock strata and gave birth to mountains. Best examples are the
Tethys Sea which is currently standing as Mt. Everest, Rockies, Andes are young fold mountains; The Urals, The
Appalachians are the old fold mountains.

II. Block Mountains: Formed due to faults caused by tensional forces. An intense folding is generally followed by
faulting of strata due to horizontal force of tension. The land between two parallel faults either rises forming a
block mountain (horsts) or subsides into a rift valley or a graben.
Characterized by flat tops, steep fault scraps, the subsided portions between the parallel faults have flat bases.
Examples are Vosges in France and Black Forest in Germany.
Rivers Rhine, Damodar, Narmada runs through a rift valley.

III. Volcanic Mountains: These are mountains formed as a result of volcanic activity. At the time of volcanic
eruption, lava is thrown out of the vent and deposited around the crater to form mountains. As these are formed
by accumulation volcanic material, therefore, these are known as mountains of accumulation. Examples are: Mt.
Popa (Myanmar), Mt. Fuji Yoma (Japan).

IV. Residual Mountains: They owe their structure to the agents of denudation like river, glaciers, wind, etc. They
are also known as relict mountains or mountains of circumdenudation. They get worn down by previously
existing hills. Exception: Nilgiris, which has got its present height by subsequent upliftment. Examples: Girnar
hills, Parasnath hills, Nilgiris.

LANDFORM: PLATEAUS

A plateau is an elevated area as compared to its surrounding areas. In contrast to mountains, it has a large area on its top
and has flat or undulating surface. Its sides are characterized by steep cliff except in a plateau which is surrounded by
high mountains. Often called, ‘the table land’.
The rocks are arranged into layers with sandstone, shales and limestone. This arrangement gives the plateau a larger
surface area.
CLASSIFICATION:
I. Intermontane: Fully or partly enclosed by mountains. Ex: Tibet, Bolivia, Mexico.

II. Piedmont: Situated at the foot of the mountain, bounded by either a plain or an ocean on the opposite side. Also
called plateaus of denudation because they get reduced in elevation by agents of denudation. Ex: Patagonia
plateau, Appalachian, Malwa.

III. Continental: Surrounded by sea or plains from all sides. Result of continental upliftment and are quite vast.
Brazil, South India, Greenland, West Australia are quite well-known as examples of these mountains.

LANDFORMS: PLAINS
A relatively flat and a low-lying land surface with least difference between its highest and lowest points is called a plain.
CLASSICATION:
I. Structural: They’re also known as coastal plains. Formed by the upliftment of continental shelf. Example: the
coastal plain lying between the Appalachian-Piedmont plateau and the Atlantic coast of south-eastern US. In India,
Malabar coastal plain stands out as a remarkable example.

II. Erosional: They’re also known as destructional plains. Formed as a result of erosion of some elevated tract of
land such as mountain, a hill or a plateau. The erosional work is done by agents like river, glacier, wind, etc.
a. Peneplains: higher level lands lowered down into plains. Residual rocks that stand above the general level
of land are called monadnocks. Paris basin, upper part of Mississippi.

b. Karst plains: underground water dissolves rocks in a limestone area. This results in limestone erosion by
underground water. Tennessee, Florida and Kentucky in USA.

c. Plains of glacial erosion: Erosion of vast lands by glaciers to form plains is called ‘glacially eroded
plains.’ Canada, Finland, Sweden.

d. Desert plains: Formed due to erosional work of winds in the desert areas.

III. Depositional Plains: They’re also known as constructive plains. Formed as a result of deposition of material in
lowlands such as depressions, lakes and sea floor.
a. Alluvial plains: Formed by depositional work of rivers. When alluvial is deposited at the base of the
hills, it forms piedmont plateau. The delta plains are formed at the mouth (estuaries) of the rivers like
Ganga under favorable conditions. Po River plains, Hwang Ho River plains, Indo-Ganga Plains.

b. Drift plains: formed by depositional work of glaciers. Till plains form by deposition underneath the
ice. Marginal moraines are formed by the deposition at the edge of the glacier. Outwash plains are
formed by the glacio-fluvial sills starting from the end of the melting glacier. Ladakh plains, North
American plains.

c. Lacustrine plains: Deposition of sediments in a lake basin which gives rise to old lake plains.
Kashmir valley, Imphal basin in Manipur hills. They’re highly fertile and hence good for agriculture
and featured with thick population.

d. Loess plains: Formed by the depositional work of winds in desert areas. The dust part particles carried
by the wind are called loess which are carried across vast barren lands of interior deserts to adjoining
deserts. West Rajasthan and Russian Turkistan.

e. Coastal plains: Formed by the depositional work of sea waves which drive the beach material land-
wards. Forms marine swamps, mud flats, and tidal lowlands. Belgium, Netherlands and Palestine’s
coastal plains are a valid example.

f. Lava plains: When thin lava i.e. basic is erupted, it spreads over a large area and forms a lava plain.