Physics Project

LIGHT, MIRRORS AND LENSES

Presented to:

Lic. Erlin Quimbay Arias

Students:

Carlos Alberto Rivas Mosquera

Harol Alexis García Sánchez
Juan David Morillo Caicedo
Erika Tatiana Trejos Moncada

Course: 11-1

Las Américas Educational Institution

Headquarters
Academic year 07-08
 Physics Project

LIGHT, MIRRORS, AND LENSES

Students:

Carlos Alberto Rivas Mosquera

Harol Alexis García Sánchez
Juan David Morillo Caicedo
ErikaTatiana Trejos Moncada

Educational Institution Las Américas

Headquarters
School year 07-08
 CONTENT

Introduction
Justification
2. Objectives
[Link] Points
4. Concept of Light
5. Main Characteristics of Light
6. Concept of Mirror
[Link] of Mirrors
8. Concept of Lens
9. Corpuscular Model of Light
10. Wave Model of Light
11. Dual Nature of Light
12. Propagation of light: refractive index and optical path
13. Reflection of light: Snell's law
14. Dispersion of light
15. The Human Eye
16. Eye Diseases
[Link]
18. Bibliography
[Link]
 INTRODUCTION

What is optics?

Optics is the branch of thephysicsthat studies the behavior of the

lightits characteristics and its manifestations. It encompasses the study of the
reflection, therefraction, theinterferences, thediffraction, the training of
images and the interaction of light with matter.
 JUSTIFICATION

The following project has been carried out in order to learn a lot.
more about everything related to light, mirrors, and lenses, in
optical conclusion.
 OBJECTIVES

. Understanding the particle and wave models

. Understand the concept of light and its characteristics

. Identify the different types of mirrors

. Have a clear understanding of the concept of a lens

. Know the speed of light propagation

. Identify the different parts of the human eye

. Know the causes and the prevention of diseases

oculars
 MAIN POINTS

. Concepts of Light and its main characteristics

. Concept of mirror and its types

. Concept of lens and its types

. Models of light

. Nature and Propagation of Light

. Reflection and Dispersion of Light

. The human eye and its diseases

. Optical Instruments
 CONCEPT OF LIGHT

The light is the kind ofelectromagnetic energyradiantable to be

perceived by thehuman eyeIn a broader sense, the term light
includes the entire range of radiation known as thespectrum
electromagneticThe science that studies the main forms of
producing light, as well as its control and applications is calledoptics.

Ray of lightsolardispersedby dust particles

 MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT

The study of light reveals a series of characteristics and effects on

interact with matter, which allows us to develop some theories
about its nature.

Finite speed
It has been shown theoretically and experimentally that light has a
finite speed. The first successful measurement was made by the
Danish astronomerOle Roemerin 1676 and since then numerous
experiments have improved the accuracy with which the data is known.
The currently accepted exact value for the speed of light in the
vacuum is 299,792,458 m/s.[1]
The speed of light when propagating through matter is lower.
that through the vacuum and depends on the dielectric properties of the
medium and the energy of light. The relationship between the speed of light
in the vacuum and in a medium is referred torefractive indexfrom the middle.

Refraction
Therefractionit is the sudden change of direction that light undergoes when
change medium. This phenomenon is due to the fact that light
propagates at different speeds depending on the medium through which it travels. The
the change of direction is greater, the greater the change of speed,
since light prefers to travel the greatest distances in its
displacement by the means that goes the fastest. TheSnell's law
relate the change of angle with the change of speed through
therefractive indicesof the media.
As refraction depends on the energy of light, when it is done
pass white or polychromatic light through a non-parallel medium,
like a prism, the separation of light into its different
components (colors) according to their energy, in a phenomenon called
refractive dispersionIf the medium is parallel, the light returns to
recompose upon leaving it.
Very common examples of refraction are the apparent break that occurs
see a pencil when you put it in water or therainbow.

Prism >>>
Propagation and Diffraction
One of the most obvious properties of light at first glance is that
it spreads onlinestraightWe can see it, for example, in the
propagation of a ray of light through dusty or...
saturated atmospheres. Thegeometric opticspart of this premise for
predict the position of the light, at a given moment, along
his transmission.
From the propagation of light and its encounter with objects arise the
shadowsIf we interpose a bodyopaqueon the path of light and to
continuation a screen, we will get the shadow of it
body. If the origin of the light orfocusis close to the body, of
such a way that, in proportion, it is smaller than the body,
it will produce a defined shadow. If the light source moves away from the object, it will arise
a shadow in which a lighter region is distinguished called
penumbra, and another darker one called umbra.
However, light does not always propagate in a straight line. When light
crosses a sharp obstacle or a narrow opening, the ray
slightly curves. This phenomenon, calleddiffractionit is the
responsible for the fact that when looking through a very small hole everything
be distorted or for telescopes and microscopes to have a
maximum number of increases.

Shadow of a marble
Interferencia
The simplest way to study the phenomenon of interference is
with the so-calledexperiment ofYoyoungwhich consists of having an impact
lightmonochromatic(of a single color) on a screen that has a slit
very narrow. The diffracted light that comes out of said slit is reconverted
make it incident on another screen with a double slit. The light coming from
from the two slits combines in a third screen producing
light and dark alternative bands.
The phenomenon of interferences can also be seen in a way
natural in the oil spots on the puddles of water or in the
face with information about thecompact discsboth have a
surfacethat, when illuminated with white light, thediffract,
a cancellation due to interference, based on the
angle of incidence of light, of each of the colors it contains,
allowing to see them separated, like in arainbow.

Young's experiment
Reflection and dispersion
When light strikes a body, the matter that it is made of
retains for a few moments hisenergyand then it is reissued in all
the directions. This phenomenon is calledreflectionHowever,
on optically smooth surfaces, due todestructive interferences, the
most of the radiation is lost, except for that which propagates with the
the same angle that it incidented. Simple examples of this effect are the
mirrors, polished metals or the water of a river (which has the bottom
dark).
Light is also reflected through the phenomenon calledreflection
total internalwhat occurs when a ray of light tries to exit a
medium in which its speed is slower than another faster one, with a
determined angle. It produces arefractionso that it is not
capable of crossing the surface between both media by reflecting
completely. This reflection is responsible for the flashes in a
diamondcarved.
When light is reflected diffusely and irregularly, the process is
denominationdispersionThanks to this phenomenon we can continue the
trajectory of light in dusty environments or in atmospheres
saturated. The blue color of the sky is due to the light of thesunscattered by
theatmosphereThe white color of thecloudsor the one from themilkalso is
it is due to the dispersion of light by thewateror by thefootballwhat
contain respectively.

Crossbow Fish reflected

Polarization
The phenomenon of thepolarizationit is observed in some crystals
certain ones that are individually transparent. However, if
they are placed two in series, parallel to each other and with one rotated
a determined angle with respect to the other, light cannot pass through them.
If one of the crystals is rotated, light begins to pass through them.
reaching the maximum intensity when the crystal has been rotated 90º
respecto al ángulo de total oscuridad.
Light can also be obtained polarized through thereflectionfrom the
light. Reflected light is partially or totally polarized depending
of the angle of incidence. The angle that causes total polarization
it is calledBrewster angle.
Manysunglassesand filters forcamerasthey include crystals
polarizers to eliminate annoying reflections.

Polarizer:
[Link]

Chemical effects
Some substances, when absorbing light, undergochemical changesthey use the
energythat the light transfers to them to reach the energy levels
necessary to react, to obtain a structural conformation
more suitable for carrying out a reaction or for breaking something
link of its structure (photolysis).
Thephotosynthesisin theplantsthat generate sugars fromdioxide
of carbonwater and light; the synthesis ofvitamin Din theskinthe break of
dihalogen compounds with light in theradical reactionsor the process of
vision in theeye, produced by the isomerization of the retinolwith the light, they are
Examples of photochemical reactions. The area of chemistry responsible
the study of these phenomena is thephotochemistry.
 CONCEPT OF MIRROR

A mirror is a polished surface on which light [Link], is reflected

following the laws of thereflection.
The simplest example is the flat mirror. In it, a beam of light rays
parallels can completely change direction as a set and
continue being a beam of parallel rays, thus being able to produce a
virtual image of an object with the same size and shape as the real one.
However, the image is straight but inverted on the axis.
vertical.
There are also concave mirrors and convex mirrors. When a
the mirror is concave and the curve is aparable, if a ray strikes parallel
to the axis of the mirror, it reflects passing through thefocus(what is half of
optical center of the sphere to which the mirror belongs), and if it strikes
passing through the focus, it reflects parallel to the main axis.

Vessel Reflected in a Mirror

 Schematic of a reflector

Reflection of light rays on a flat mirror

 Investment scheme of the image

TYPES OF MIRROR

Flat Mirrors
A plane mirror is a very polished flat surface that can
reflect the light that reaches it with a reflective capacity of intensity
of the incident light of 95% (or higher).
Plane mirrors are used very frequently. They are the ones that
we use every morning to look at each other. In them we see our reflection,
an image that is not distorted.

Spherical Mirrors
A spherical mirror is an optical system consisting of a portion of
spherical surface covered by a reflective material; the mirror
It can be concave or convex depending on what the surface is.
that reflects the light.
 CONCEPT OF LENS

A lens is a medium or object that concentrates or disperses rays oflight.

The most common lenses are based on the different degree of refraction.
what do rays of light experience when they strike different points of the
lens. Among them are those used to correct problems of
vision in glassesglasseso CONTACT LENSESThey also use lenses, or
combinations of lenses andmirrors, intelescopesymicroscopes. The
the first astronomical telescope was built byGalileo Galileiusing
two converging lenses. There are also instruments capable of
to make converge or diverge other types ofelectromagnetic wavesand to
those that are also known as lenses. For example, in the
electron microscopesThe lenses are of a magnetic nature.
Inastrophysicsit is possible to observe phenomena ofgravitational lenses
when the light coming from very distant objects passes near objects
massive, curving in their trajectory.

Main types of lenses

 CORPUSCULAR MODEL OF LIGHT

It is known astheorycorpuscular or of emission. At the end of the century

XVI, with the use of lenses and optical instruments, will begin to
to experiment with luminous phenomena, being the Dutch
Willebrord Snell, in 1620, who experimentally discovered thelawof
refraction, although it was not known until 1638, René
Descartes(1596-1650) published his treatise: Optics. Descartes was the
first great defender of the corpuscular theory, saying that light is
behaved like a projectile that was propelled tospeedinfinite,
without specifying anything at all about its nature, but
rejecting that certainmatteroutside the objects to the eye.
He clearly explained the reflection, but had some difficulty with the
refraction.
According to Newton, thesourcesLuminous bodies emit very light particles.
that move at high speed and in a straight line. We can already fix the
the idea that this theory also conceives the propagation of light by
through particles, it also establishes the principle that rays
they move in a straight line.
This theory is attributed to Newton (1642-1726). Light is composed of
tiny material particles emitted at high speed in a straight line
by luminous bodies. The direction of propagation of these particles
it receives the name of luminous ray.
Newton's theory is based on these points:

• Rectilinear propagation. Light propagates in a straight line because

The particles that make it up move at high speed.
• Reflection. It is known that light, when it strikes a mirror,
reflect. Newton explained this phenomenon by saying that the
light particles are perfectly elastic and therefore the
Reflection obeys the laws of elastic collision.
• Refraction. The fact that light changes speed in
media of different density, changing the direction of
propagation is difficult to explain with particle theory.
However, Newton assumed that the separating surface of
two media of different refractive indices exerted an attraction
about the luminous particles, thus increasing the component
normal of the speed while the tangential component
remained unchanged.
 WAVE MODEL OF LIGHT

It was the idea of the Dutch physicist C. Huygens. Light propagates through
mechanical waves emitted by a light source. The light for
it needed a material medium of great elasticity to propagate,
impalpable that fills everything, including the void, since light
It also propagates in it. This medium was called ether.

The light energy is not concentrated in each particle, like

not in particle theory but is spread across the entire front of
wave. The wave front is perpendicular to the directions of
propagation. Wave theory perfectly explains the
luminous phenomena through a geometric construction
callHuygens' principleFurthermore, according to this theory, light is
propagates faster in less dense media. Despite
this, Huygens' theory was forgotten for a century due to
the great authority of Newton.

The particle theory was inadequate to explain the fact that

two rays of light, when hitting a point, could originate
darkness.
 DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT

By the end of the 19th century, it was already known that the speed of light in water
was less than the speed of light in air contrary to the
hypothesis of Newton's corpuscular theory. In 1864, Maxwell obtained
a series of fundamental equations of electromagnetism and predicted
the existence ofelectromagnetic wavesMaxwell assumed that light
it represented a small portion of the wave spectrum
electromagnetic. Hertz experimentally confirmed the existence of
these waves.

The

study of other phenomena such as black body radiation, the

photoelectric effect and atomic spectra highlighted the
the impotence of wave theory to explain them. In 1905,
based on Planck's quantum theory, Einstein explained theeffect
photoelectricthrough corpuscles of light that he called photons. Bohr
in 1912 he explained the emission spectrum of the hydrogen atom,
using photons, and Compton in 1922 the effect that bears his name
relying on the corpuscular theory of light.
A serious state of discomfort appeared upon finding that the light was
behaves like an electromagnetic wave in the phenomena of
propagation, interference and diffraction and as a particle in the
interaction with matter.
There is no reason to cling to the idea of incompatibility between the waves and
the corpuscles, they are two different aspects of the same
a matter that not only do not exclude each other but complement each other.
PROPAGATION OF LIGHT: REFRACTIVE INDEX AND PATH
OPTICAL

When a wave of any kind reaches the boundary of two media

different, a part of its energy is transmitted to the second medium, giving
place in the second medium to another wave of similar characteristics
the one from the incident wave and is known as the transmitted wave.
Another part of the energy is used to generate another wave that...
propagates backward in the first medium and is called the reflected wave
In this process, the frequency of the wave is conserved, which implies
that the wavelengthλ tthe transmitted wave is different from the
wavelengthλ iof the incident, as it also changes the speed
of the wave in each medium. For the case of a light wave:

λt =

λi =

If f is the frequency, and n1y n2the refractive indices of each medium.

The refractive index of a medium is the quotient of the speed of
the light in the vacuum (3.108m/s) and the speed of light in that medium. No
It has units and is always greater than or equal to 1.

Laws of refraction
On the other side of the boundary surface, the rays do not conserve the
same direction as the incident wave:

1. Each ray of the incident wave and the corresponding ray of the wave
transmitted forms a plane that contains the normal line to the
surface of separation of the two media.
2. The angle formed by the refracted ray with the normal (angle of
refraction) is related to the angle of incidence:

n1you2senr

REFLEXIÓN DE LA LUZ: LEY DE SNELL

Laws of Reflection
1. Each ray of the incident wave and the corresponding ray of the wave
reflected in a plane perpendicular to the separation plane of the
means.

3. The angle formed by the incident ray with the normal line to the
the boundary (angle of incidence) is equal to the angle of this normal with
the reflected ray (angle of reflection).
When light passes from one medium to another whose refractive index is
greater, for example from air to water, the refracted rays approach
the normal. If the refractive index of the second medium is lower the
refracted rays move away from the normal (figure 1).
In this case, if we consider quen1>n2 and increase the angle of
incidence, there comes a moment when the angle of refraction becomes
equal to 90º, figure 2, which means that the refracted ray disappears.
As the sine of 90º is one, the angle of incidence for which it occurs
this phenomenon is given by ac = n2 / n1
This angle of incidence is called the critical angle, since
if the angle of incidence increases further, the light begins to reflect
completely, a phenomenon known as total reflection.
One application of total reflection is optical fiber, which is a fiber of
glass, long and thin where the light inside collides with the walls
at an angle greater than the critical angle so that the energy is transmitted
without losing much. Mirages are also a phenomenon of
total reflection.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT
 One of the phenomena of natural light is its decomposition into
allthe colorsof the rainbow, from red to violet, when
is refracted through some glass material, this phenomenon
it is called dispersion and is due to the speed of the
light in any medium varies with the wavelength (the index
of refraction of a medium and therefore the speed of light in the
same depends on the wavelength. Each color has a
different wavelength). Thus, for the same angle of incidence,
Light refracts at different angles for different colors.

Prisms can be used to analyze light in some instruments.

called spectroscopes.

THE HUMAN EYE

The eye, from the Latin ocŭlus, or eyeball is theorganwhat detects thelight,
being the basis ofsensefrom theviewIt consists of a system
sensitive to changes in light, able to transform them into impulses
electric. The simplest eyes only detect whether the
surroundings are illuminated or dark. The more complex ones are used for
provide the meaning of theview.
The parts of the eye are essential for human existence because
thanks to them we capture, perceive, and find what is called the
images perceived by this system.
Thecompound eyesare found in thearthropods(insects and
similar animals) and are formed by many simple facets that
give a "pixelated" image, that is, in mosaic (not multiple images,
as often believed.
In most of thevertebratesand somemollusks, the eye works
projecting images onto aretinasensitive to light, where it is detected and
a corresponding signal is transmitted through theoptic nerveThe eye
Generally, it is approximately spherical, filled with a substance.
transparentgelatinous calledvitreous humorthat fills the space
understood between the retina and thecrystallinethe transparent humor, that
is located in the space between the lens and the
transparent cornea, whose function is to control the optimal condition of
intraocular pressure, with a focusing lens calledcrystalliney, a
stew, amusclecalliristhat regulates how much light enters.
So that the rays of light canto focus, they mustto refract. The
the required refractive quantity depends on the distance of the object that
It is seen. A distant object will require less refraction than a closer one.
close. Most of the refraction occurs in thecornea, which has
a fixed curvature. The rest of the required refraction occurs in the
crystalline. As people age, they lose this ability to
adjust the focus, deficiency known aspresbyopiathe tired gaze.

Functions of the eye

The eye receives stimuli from the rays of light coming from the environment and
they are transformed into nerve impulses. These impulses reach up to the
visual processing center, where they are decoded and converted into
images. Sight is one of the five senses that allow us to
comprender el mundo que nos rodea y desenvolvernos en él. La pupila
It is the diaphragm of the eye. The muscles of the ciliary muscle that have
circular shape and radius, they open or close it depending on the
luminosity.

Structure of the eye

1. Rear camera [Link] body [Link] central
[Link] edge Conjunctiva retinal
14. Muscle oblique [Link] nerve
[Link] muscle
inferior [Link] vein
[Link] Muscle right
lens suspensor [Link]
inferior
[Link] of Schlemm bulbar
[Link] right side
[Link] medial [Link]
[Link] camera [Link] and veins [Link]
[Link] retinal [Link]
[Link] [Link] (blind spot) [Link]
[Link] of thecrystalline [Link] mater [Link] right
[Link] nucleus [Link] central superior
retinal [Link]

The organ of vision is composed of the eyelids, the globes

oculars, the lacrimal apparatus and themusclesexternal oculars. Vision
binocular, with the participation of both eyes, allows to appreciate the
three-dimensional images. The eyeballmeasures about 25mm of
diameter and is held in position by the eye muscles.
It is wrapped in amembranecomposed of several layers.
The outer layer, calledsclera(27), it is thick, durable and of
white color. It covers the middle layer, thechorioids(28), which contains
abundantblood vesselsThe inner layer is calledretina(30), and in
they are found thecellssensitive to light: the canes and the
cones. The front part of the eyeball is covered by thecornea(8),
a transparent and durable membrane that lacks vessels
blood
Around the cornea is theconjunctiva(4). Behind the cornea is
find the previous camera, limited by theiris(9) and thepupilBehind
the pupil is located thecrystalline, the ciliary body and the posterior chamber.
The two chambers are filled with a liquid, thewatery humor, that by
one side maintains the tension of the inside of the eye and, on the other, moistens the
crystal clear and guarantees itsnutritionThe
iris is made up of a fine network.
of connective fibers, thestomach, provided with numerous glasses
blood and the muscles that control thedilationand the
contractionfrom the pupil.
The area surrounding the optic nerve is the optic disc, a region that does not
it contains sensory cells and constitutes the so-called blind spot.
About thesurfacefrom the retina, along the anteroposterior axis of the eye, there is
a depression: the luteal or yellow spot, which is the area with the greatest
visual acuity. The eye sees visible light that ranges from 400 micrometers to
750 micrometers, approximately 3x107Hz frequency width of
band

Structure of the human eye. The exterior part of the eye is composed of
by a sclera, white and protective, and the cornea, transparent, to
through which light enters. The middle layer includes the choroid,
that supplies blood to the eye, and the pigmented iris. The light that enters
through the pupil, it is regulated by muscles that control its
size. The retina is located in the third layer and contains cells
receptors (cones and rods) that transform light waves
in nerve impulses. The lens, which is located immediately
behind the iris, focuses light on the retina. The macula lutea, located
in the center of the retina, it is an area of high visual precision and of
chromatic discrimination. The nerve fibers pass through the nerve
optical towards the visual center of the brain. The anterior and
the back of the eye contains an aqueous fluid that nourishes the cornea and the
crystalline. The vitreous humor helps maintain the shape of the eye. A
thin layer of mucous membrane (conjunctiva) protects the
exposed surface of the eye. The external muscles, lateral rectus and
medial rectus, connect and move the eye within its socket.
 VISION DISORDERS

. MYOPIA
Myopia is the difficulty in seeing far away, usually due to a
anterior-posterior diameter of the eye larger than normal
convergenceexcessive of the lens or to arefractiontoo much
strong of the cornea. In all cases, the images are projected by
on the retina and are transmitted in a blurred manner. Myopia is the
static eye condition (without accommodation action) where the
rays coming from infinity or optical infinity converge before reaching
to the retina. Myopia can be caused by an increase in diameter
antero-posterior of the eyeball (it is the most common cause), to a
increase in the refractive capacity of one of the layers of the eye:
the cornea, the lens or the aqueous humor, or it can also be
originated by an increase in the curvature of the cornea or the lens.

Classification
There are several classifications of myopia, but the most commonly used is:

1. Simple myopia. The refractive error of the eye is <6 diopters. No

There are notable ocular alterations.

2. Pathological or degenerative myopia. The refractive error is >6

diopters, which is usually correlated with an axis
anteroposterior greater than 26 mm. There are alterations
important intraoculars that can end up causing the
blindness.

Causes
Y, why can the image be formed before the retina, and not on it?
site? There are many reasons. The most common ones may be: An excess
of eye length, or an excess of power of the media
transparent of the same (due, for example, to a change in the
curvature of the cornea, or a change in the refractive index of
some of them - due to some metabolic disorder.

Is Myopia Hereditary? We can say that myopia has a

hereditary component. That is to say, it is more likely that from parents
myopic parents have myopic children, not from non-myopic parents. I would add
What is the 'predisposition' to myopia that we really inherit.

Correction of myopia.
Myopia is corrected with concave, divergent, or negative lenses that
correctly focus the image forming in front on the retina
of he.
The greater the myopia, the more diopters will be required.
to correct it.
Glasses in the correction of myopia have the disadvantage
cosmetic, that of weight (in high myopia) and the resulting inconvenience
of the different optical aberrations that can occur, what
negatively affects the visual quality of the patient.
Contact lenses are more aesthetic, they are light, and they produce less
optical aberrations and can be used in activities such as sports,
where the use of glasses is more problematic. However, they present
various inconveniences. Firstly, they must be handled and taken care of.
with care, as well as renewing frequently. On the other hand, to
contacting directly with the eye surface can produce
infections, inflammations, allergies, and ulcerations. These anomalies, of
to occur, they are potentially serious, requiring the interruption of use
contact lenses (sometimes forever) and manage
topical medications by the ophthalmologist, who
will supervise the illness until its resolution.

Recently we have witnessed a true boom of different techniques.

surgical procedures for the correction of myopia. Due to its importance
we will highlight two:

[Link]. Acronym for laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis. The objective

this technique is to provoke an ablation of the corneal tissue in its
central part proportional to the number of diopters we want
This reduces the corneal curvature and therefore its power.
refractive, with which we will achieve a proper focus of the
images on the retina. We must know that the cornea, in its part
central, has an average thickness of 500 microns, and for each diopter
we want to correct we will ablate about 20 microns on average.
Since the corneal thickness after applying the laser cannot be
less than 400 microns, from which it is deduced that with this technique.
We will not be able to successfully correct myopias higher than 8-10.
diopters. This surgery is easy to perform and is highly mechanized. It
practice with topical anesthesia, without the need for suturing, in just
10 minutes for both eyes. After the procedure, the patient can
quickly reintegrate into their normal life. As disadvantages,
some patients complain after surgery of losing visual quality,
which can be irreversible. Poor vision can also occur.
nighttime, dry eyes, and seeing halos and flashes. Throughout
It is essential to inform the patient correctly before the
intervention.
2. PHAKIC LENSES. This technique consists of the implantation of
a lens inside the eyeball, either in front or behind
from the iris, with the intention of correcting myopia. The lenses that are most
They use silicone or acrylic material. This technique is used
to surgically correct myopias of more than 8-10 diopters. It
practice with topical anesthesia, usually without sutures, in a short time
more than ten or fifteen minutes both eyes. Present the
inconvenience regarding LASIK that we must enter the globe
ocular, making a full-thickness corneal incision. As
main side effects can promote the development of
cataract and glaucoma (increased intraocular pressure).

Visual education tips for

Prevent vision problems

. Some manifestations of myopic predisposition: A sign

revealing, although not specific to myopia, is the approach
excessive in the child towards what he reads or writes. Another, the child who returns
to get close to the television shortly after having told him to
he would put himself further away. Also, the child who happily immerses himself in
 reading a book, forgetting the snack time, without noticing the
lack of light and continuing to read in the dimness, often
face down, with their nose almost in the book. All of them prefer for it
common activities indoors or quiet games for the
physical efforts or outdoor races. They are, so to speak,
prone to myopia.
. The child's position for reading or studying should be similar to what
indicate the drawing above. Sitting (do not allow him to read lying down or
lying down), with the legs reaching the ground. A good
direct lighting (a desk lamp, for example), but with the light from the
lit room. The reading on a slightly
tilted, about 40 cm. away.
. In case you have to read or study for a long time in a row, you
they should take relatively frequent breaks, taking advantage of
taking a stroll around the house and stretching as much as possible.
. Do not read lying down or in poor light.
. It is very good to do sports and exercise outdoors.
. Nutrition also plays an important role, needing to
take care of it to the utmost.

. And of course, a periodic visual examination conducted by a

The appropriate professional becomes absolutely essential.

. HYPERMETROPY
As we have already seen, the function of the different transparent media
The purpose of the eye is to make the image we want to see form on the retina.
just as in a camera, the mission of the lens is
that the image to be photographed forms on the film. If it forms in front
or behind, the photo will come out blurry.
A hyperopic eye is one that, at rest, forms images
coming from infinity (from about 5 meters - just like in the
photo cameras -) behind the retina. Therefore the image that arrives
it is blurry, being transmitted in that way to the brain.

Symptoms
So, can we say that a farsighted eye sees poorly at a distance and
up close?
Well no, not yet, and it's not that easy. We saw that the system
Visual is something dynamic, and there is the 'accommodation' that allows
focus closely by varying the thickness (and therefore the power) of the
crystalline. As we have already seen, with the eye at rest, the hyperopic
it forms the image of a point in infinity on the retina. If the lens
it will increase its power (which it can do through accommodation),
the image would form closer to the retina, or even on it.
Therefore, we can conclude that a hypermetropic eye can see
clearly from afar to the coast, that is, with an extra accommodative effort.
If we have a lot of accommodation (as in the case of a child for
example) and the amount of farsightedness is not very large, that
effort we wouldn't even notice it. If the amount of farsightedness is
large and the accommodation we have is also plenty,
we would see well, but asthenopic discomfort would appear, that is,
eye strain, headaches, eye irritations, etc. And if not
We already have a lot of accommodation (This decreases with age, such
as we studied elsewhere on this Web), simply not
we would see well.
But that's not all. We already know that to see up close it is necessary
put into motion the 'accommodation,' and therefore make an effort. Yes,
also we are hyperopic, the effort will be even greater: to
to focus closely and to compensate for hyperopia. That is why
that the discomforts of a hyperope appear sooner when looking close than when looking far
far away.
In short, a hypermetropic person can see well from a distance.
and up close, see well from afar and with discomfort up close, see with discomfort
from far away and poorly up close, or even not seeing well either far away or up close.
Everything will depend on the accommodation available (due to their age after all)
and in the end) and of the amount of hyperopia that one has.

What is hyperopia?
Hyperopia is a refractive error in which the person sees better at
far away than close.

Hypermetropic eye in near vision

In close vision, the lens accommodates to compensate, but it causes
fatigue.

Hypermetropic eye in distant vision

The image of a distant object is formed within the retina. The eye is
too short or not powerful enough. The object looks out of focus.

What factors promote hyperopia?

The inheritance

Can hyperopia be corrected?

Hyperopia is corrected with glasses or contact lenses.
It can also be corrected with laser technique.

How often should glasses to correct vision be changed?

efficiently hyperopia?
Preferably every year, since the eyes usually suffer from
el tiempo de pequeños cambios fisiológicos. Cada año es necesario
determine how much vision has improved or worsened.

. ASTIGMATISM
Astigmatism is a refractive error that causes everything to appear
deformed or unfocused, both in near vision and in far vision
distant. In the astigmatic eye, the cornea (transparent membrane that
(covers the eye) it is not spherical, but it has the shape of an ellipse (like a ball)
of American football), this causes the images to not focus on a
single focus like in a normal eye, they are focused on different points, the
which leads to blurred vision.

What factors contribute to astigmatism?

It can be congenital or hereditary.

Can astigmatism be corrected?

Astigmatism can be corrected using hard contact lenses,
oxygen-permeable, or soft, that will function as a cornea
artificial. In some cases, the use of frames is better.
It can also be corrected using laser technology.
Astigmatism can be combined with myopia, resulting in a:
myopic astigmatism where in addition to seeing blurred at a distance, the
Both near and far images appear distorted.
Astigmatism can be combined with hyperopia, resulting in a
hyperopic astigmatism where in addition to seeing unfocused
Nearby and distant images are perceived as distorted.

Symptoms
And what optical consequences does astigmatism have on what the eye sees?
Yes? Well, they can, and in fact they do vary. Generally speaking, we can say
that the first consequence is that the image that a point will see a
astigmatic eye will be a line (in the direction determined by the
flattening of the cornea). In this way, it happens that a line (which
in fact it is a succession of points), an astigmatic eye will see it very
blurred if it is situated in the direction of your astigmatism, and much
sharper if it is in the direction perpendicular to it.
But, furthermore, it turns out that both main meridians can be
nearsighted, or both astigmatic, or even one nearsighted and the other
farsighted, so the symptoms vary quite a bit from one to another.
Returning to generalize, we can say that astigmatisms
Myopes and hypermetropes can exhibit the same symptoms.
that myopia or hyperopia (I insist on generalizing). But
we go back to the usual: the eye is a dynamic system and tries by itself
same, and using accommodation to correct the effects of the
astigmatism. What are the consequences? Something similar to what happened in the
hyperopia. Depending on the amount, the age, and in this case,
of the type of astigmatism, may not affect vision, produce
discomfort for the near, discomfort for the far, poor vision
near and discomfort for the far, or even poor vision for distance and
for close.
Additionally, we can establish different classifications of astigmatism.
besides those we have already mentioned (regular-irregular, miotic-
mixed hypermetropia). The most common can be according to the axis of
astigmatism, and according to the type of each eye separately. Some produce
more effects and discomforts than others, but this would already be the subject of a
a much deeper study than what is intended here.

Normal View of the Eye

human

View of a Myopic Eye

View of a hyperopic eye

 View of an astigmatic eye

. WATERFALLS

How do we know if we have a cataract?

Symptoms of developing it include noticing a loss of sharpness.
in the vision, in the vividness of colors, discomfort from sunlight or the
of the lighthouses, or the partially double vision in one eye.

What is a cataract?
The cataract arises when the lens, the natural lens of the eye that allows
focus on nearby and distant objects, it loses its transparency and the
images look like in fog, which becomes denser
progressively.

What is your treatment?

The only way to remove it is through surgery. The cataract keeps diminishing.
progressively vision, so when the patient wishes to do so, they must
to operate following the maximum security procedures for each
case.

How are they operated?

Nowadays there are two main techniques and both can return a
excellent vision. The extraction through small incision avoids the need
of suture, points, and therefore does not induce astigmatism. The cataract
aspire it by fragmenting it with ultrasounds and in its place a
foldable intraocular lens.
This can be done with local anesthesia and on an outpatient basis. The
wide incision technique simplifies the extraction of the nucleus of the
cataract, especially when it is hard, as well as the lens implant
intraocular, at the cost of requiring sutures and a longer postoperative period.

Are glasses needed after the surgery?

Intraocular lenses are similar to the popular 'contact lenses' but
specially designed to be inserted into the eye, and they have the
appropriate power for each case. These allow for a glasses-free view
from afar and at medium distances, usually requiring a small
supplementary correction for reading, like those used by people
with tired eyes. The eyes are for a lifetime, so it is
It is advisable to seek the safety of an experienced center.
. GLAUCOMA
What is glaucoma?
It is one of the leading causes of blindness in our country. It consists of
the elevation of intraocular pressure, due to insufficient outflow
from watery humor. Pressing this can produce on the optic nerve
irreversible vision loss.

How does it manifest?

Except for the acute attack, which is very painful, chronic glaucoma does not
causes symptoms. It causes an initial loss of vision in areas of the
central area of the visual field, which in its early stages usually
to go unnoticed by the patient.

Is there treatment?
Yes, the aim is to lower intraocular pressure.
medication in the form of drops. Over time it may be necessary to
surgery.

¿Cómo se opera?
There are different techniques depending on the evolution and type of glaucoma. Such as
non-invasive and outpatient treatments include Trabeculoplasty with
Argon Laser: recommended for chronic angle glaucomas
open; and the Nd:YAG laser Iridotomy: for glaucoma
narrow angle.
As surgical techniques, for the more advanced cases, we have the
Trabeculectomy and, the most recent, Deep Sclerectomy not
perforating, both reduce intraocular pressure by creating pathways of
controlled escapes for watery humor.

Will all vision recover again after the surgery?

The damage caused by glaucoma is irreversible. Therefore, if
there is a family history, over 40 years, myopia, diabetes,
high blood pressure or cardiovascular disorders, among others, is
It is advisable to go for annual check-ups with the ophthalmologist.
eyes are for a lifetime, so one must seek the security of a
experienced center.

. MACULAR DEGENERATION

What is the macula?

The macula is the structure of the eye responsible for central vision and the
that allows us to see its finer details. This vision is necessary
to drive, recognize people's faces, and see up close.

What is macular degeneration?

It is the most common cause of vision loss starting from the age of 60.
of age, in the Western world. As age progresses, for a
a series of factors related to nutrition, blood circulation
and others, the macula can progressively deteriorate. There are other
forms of macular degeneration that can affect people
young or middle-aged, especially if they are nearsighted.

What are its symptoms?

The most characteristic are: blurry vision and progressive difficulty to
read, distortion in the size and shape of images, straight lines
wavy patterns appear, appearance of spots in the center of the field
visual, especially noticeable when reading a text in small print. In the long term
In the long term, macular degeneration only affects central vision and not
leads to total blindness. From the age of 50, it is known as
age-related macular degeneration.

What is the treatment for age-related macular degeneration?

age?
We have incorporated a novel treatment, like one of the centers
of reference, Photodynamic Therapy, which combines the action of a
laser with that of a medication that is injected intravenously. It has
demonstrated that in some selected cases it is possible to stop the
illness. Therefore, it should be emphasized that when a person observes
the wavy lines converge at a center of reference. Like the eyes
they are for a lifetime, it is advisable to seek the security of a
experienced center.
 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

The ray tracing in lens and mirror systems is

particularly important for the design of the following
optical instruments:

The Microscope.
A microscope is a lens system that produces an image.
augmented virtual reality of a small object. The microscope most
A magnifying glass is a converging lens. The object is placed between the
lens and the focus, so that the image is virtual and is at a
distance that is the minimum distance for clear vision, around 25
A compound microscope consists of two converging lenses.
of short focal length, called objective and eyepiece.

Parts of the optical microscope and their functions

• Ocularlens located near the observer's eye. Enlarges the image

of the objective.
• Objectivelens located near the preparation. Zooms in on the image of
this.
• Condenser: lens that concentrates light rays on the
preparation.
• Diaphragm: regulates the amount of light that enters the condenser.
• Focus: directs the light rays towards the condenser.
• Eyepiece: its function is to capture and enlarge the formed image
in the objects.
• Tube: it is a dark chamber connected to the arm by a
zipper.
• Revolver: It is a system that takes the targets, and that rolls to
to use one lens or another.
• Macro and micrometer screws: They are focus screws, they move
the platina up and down. The micrometer does it of
fast shape and the micrometric shape slowly. They come integrated with a
lock control that fixes the plate at a certain height.
• Platinum: It is a horizontal platform with a central hole, on top of the
what is placed in the preparation that allows the passage of rays
coming from the light source located below. Two
Forceps are used to hold the slide on the stage and a
rack system guided by two displacement screws
allows moving the preparation forward and backward or from left to right
right and vice versa. On the back of one of the sides is
find a nonio that allows you to fix the coordinates of any
optical field; in this way one can resort to it when it is of interest.

The Wolf
A magnifying glass is alensbiconvex, generally mounted on a support
circular that, depending on its design, and very commonly, on the use
specific in a certain area of work or research, may or may not have a
handle. The primary use of the magnifying glass is to
enlarge small areas for better visualization; for
example, to read very small texts, or to see in detail some
particularity of a certain object.
The magnifying glass is an instrument ortechnical operatorwhat has been invented and
made to make use of principles ofphysicsregarding theoptics,
well, the lens bends thelightincident in such a way that an image is formed
virtualenlarged from behind the object. The image is called
virtual because the rays that seem to come from it do not actually pass through
through the magnifying glass. A virtual image cannot be projected onto a screen.
Magnifying glasses can come in various sizes, and depending on that, the lens
can have a certain degree of magnification. Generally, magnifying glasses
larger diameter are more powerful. However, not all magnifying lenses are
not in a circular form, but there are some lenses that have been made in
square or rectangular shape.
Telescope
A telescope is referred to as anytooloinstrumentoptical
that allows you to see distant objects with much more detail than by the naked eye
view. It is a fundamental tool of theastronomy, and each development or
the improvement of the telescope has been followed by advances in
our understanding of theUniverse.
Thanks to the telescope, we have been able to discover many aspects of the
stars and other celestial bodies. Thus, what seems to be a point at first glance
white in the middle of the night, seen through a telescope acquires
color and greater detail. The intensity or brightness with which we can
observing each star gives us an idea of its situation: the brighter, the more
proximity at our disposal.
Generally, its invention is attributed toHans Lippershey, a
lens manufacturerGermanaround1608. Galileo Galileihad
news of this invention and decided to design and build one. In 1609
he showed the first recorded telescope. Thanks to the telescope, he made
great discoveries inastronomy, among which stands out the
observation, theJanuary 7from 1610, from four of the moons ofJupiter
turning around thisplanet.
Known until then as lalente
spy, the name telescope was
proposed first by the mathematician
GreekGiovanni DemisianiApril 14
from 1611 during a dinner inRomein
honor of Galileo; dinner in which the
attendees were able to observe the moons
ofJupiterthrough the telescope that
Galileo had brought with him.
There are several types of telescope,
notablyrefractors, that use
glassesreflectors, which have a mirror
concave instead of the objective lens,
ycatadioptric, which have a mirror
concave and a corrective lens. The
the reflector telescope was invented by
Isaac Newtonin1688and formed a
important advance on telescopes
of your time by easily correcting thechromatic aberrationcharacteristic
of refracting telescopes.
The most important parameter of a telescope is the diameter of its
objective. An amateur telescope generally has between 76 and 150
mmin diameter and allows observation of some planetary details and
a great many objects from deep space (clusters, nebulae, and some
galaxies). Telescopes that exceed 200 mm in diameter
allow seeing fine lunar details, important planetary details and
a large amount ofcumulus, nebulaeyshiny galaxies.

Characteristics
To characterize a telescope and use it, a series of
parameters and accessories:

• Focal Distance: it is the focal length of the telescope, which is

define as the distance from the mirror or the main lens to
the focus or point where the eyepiece is located.
• Diameter of the target: diameter of the primary mirror or lens
telescope.
• Ocularsmall accessory that is placed on the light bulb
telescope allows to magnify the image of objects.
• Barlow lenslens that generally doubles or triples the
increases of the eyepiece when observing the stars.
• Filter: small accessory that generally obscures the image
from the star, but depending on its color and material allows
improve the observation. It is located in front of the eyepiece, and the most
used are the spot (blue-green, improves contrast in the
observation of our satellite), and the solar, with great power of
absorption of sunlight to avoid injuring the retina of the eye.
• Focal Reasonit is the quotient between the focal distance (mm) and the
diameter (mm). (f/ratio)
• Limit magnitudeit is the maximum magnitude that theoretically
can be observed with a given telescope, under conditions of
ideal observations. The formula for its calculation is: m (limit) =
6.8 + 5log (D) (where D is the diameter in centimeters of the lens or
the mirror of the telescope.
• IncreasesThe number of times an instrument multiplies
the apparent diameter of the observed objects. It is equivalent to the
relationship between the focal length of the telescope and the focal length
of the ocular (DF/df). For example, a telescope of 1000 mm of
focal length, with a 10mm eyepiece of df. will provide a
increase of 100 (also expressed as 100X).
• Tripodset of three legs usually metallic that gives it
and support and stability to the telescope.
• Ocular port: opening where the eyepiece, reducers or
focal length multipliers (e.g. Barlow lenses) or accessories
like adapters for photographic cameras.
 CONCLUSIONS

. Light has a finite speed, and its first measurement was made
by the Danish astronomer Rømer in 1676.

. Therefractionit is the sudden change of direction that light undergoes when

change medium.

. The angle that causes total polarization is calledangle of

Brewster.

. A mirror is a polished surface on which light [Link], if

reflects following the laws of thereflection

. There are two types of mirrors: flat mirrors and spherical mirrors.

. A lens is a medium or object that focuses or disperses rays of

light.

. 20/20 vision is perfect vision.

. Myopia is seeing poorly at a distance and better up close.

. Farsightedness is seeing poorly up close and better at a distance.

. Astigmatism is seeing everything out of focus both from afar and up close.
search

. The first astronomical telescope was built byGalileo Galilei

using two converging lenses.
. Light propagates through mechanical waves emitted by a source.
bright.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

. [Link]

. [Link]

. [Link]

. [Link]

. [Link]/[Link]

. [Link]

. [Link]

. [Link]

. [Link]
 GLOSSARY

. Dynamics: Dynamics is the part of physics that describes the

evolution over time of a physical system in relation to the
causes that provoke changes inphysical stateand/or state
of movement.

. Presbyopia: Presbyopia, also known as tired vision, is

a defect or imperfection of vision that consists of the
decrease in accommodation capacity of theeye, therefore
the objects located near him are difficult to see,
keeping long-distance vision well.