Research Workshop I

UNIT II ELABORATION OF A
RESEARCH PROTOCOL

II. 1. Design of the Theoretical Framework (theoretical references)

According to Tamayo and Tamayo (2003), "Once it is precisely formulated what the
problem to investigate - research questions have been posed - and specified
what will be the objectives and the expected results of the research, it must
consider what path will be taken." And specifies:

The methodological strategy of the research comprises several elements: the approach

of the model or the theoretical principles within which the problem will be handled; the

definition of the concepts that will be used…; the specification of the hypotheses that will

they will investigate as possible clues for a solution; the delimitation of the parameters of the

research and the selection of data collection techniques and analysis procedures of the

investigation.

Theoretical framework

In a research project, we never start 'from scratch', but we start from a theoretical foundation and
conceptually determined (Tamayo and Tamayo, 2003), with which the researcher seeks
finding an explanation for the research problem.

This explanation is structured based on the consultation of documentary sources, consultations with
experts and based on information taken from databases, which must be internalized
by the researcher (Tamayo and Tamayo, 2003). Likewise, it is important to clarify that framework
theoretical is not the same as theory; therefore, not all studies that include a theoretical framework
they must be based on a theory (Hernández et al., 2006).

According to Hernández et al. (2006), the theoretical framework serves various functions within
a research, among which the following stand out:
Helps prevent errors that have been made in other studies.
2. Guide on how the study should be carried out.
3. Broaden the study's horizon and guide the researcher to focus on their
problem.
4. Document the need to conduct the study.
5. It leads to the establishment of hypotheses or else, it helps us not to establish them.
well-founded reasons.
Inspires new lines and areas of research.
7. Provides a framework for interpreting the results of the study.

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Similarly, Hernández et al. (2006) points out that the development of the theoretical framework usually
it comprises two stages:
. The corresponding literature review.
. The adoption of a theory or the development of a theoretical or reference perspective.

Literature review
The literature review (also called bibliography, documentation, literature review,
collection of information, background, etc.), "It consists of detecting, consulting, and obtaining the
bibliography and other useful materials for study purposes, from which is extracted and
gather relevant and necessary information for the research problem" (Hernández, et al.
In 2006); that is, "what has been written regarding the research problem or
relate to this” (Gómez-Peresmitré and Reidl, 2010).

To develop this section, what is described in point I.2.1. Background is followed.

research, seen in unit I of this course. Starting the review of the most works
recent and progressing towards the past, the extent of the search will depend on the
amount of available material and the key is to find the relevant articles.

The collection of information included in the theoretical framework must record certain aspects.
like:“Autor, Año de publicación, Titulo del trabajo, Editorial, Lugar de la edición, Número de
pages in the case of books or the number of pages in the case of scientific articles,
Site name and full electronic address in the case of web pages and others
utility aspects for the future location of the material” (Cortés and Iglesias, 2004).

Adoption of a theory
The Theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions and
propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying the
relationships between variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena (Hernández,
et al, 2006).

The theory serves the function:

Explain: say why, how, and when a phenomenon occurs.
Systematize: bring order to knowledge.
Predict: how a phenomenon will manifest or occur given certain conditions.

The construction of a theoretical framework depends on what we find in the review of the
literature. We can encounter different situations:
1. That there is a fully developed theory, with abundant empirical evidence.
and that applies to our research problem. In this case, the best
The strategy is to take that theory as the very structure of the theoretical framework.
2. There are several theories that apply to our research problem. In this
case, we can choose one and use it to build the theoretical framework or well
take parts from some or all theories, as long as they relate to the
study problem.

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3. There are 'pieces or snippets' of theory with moderate or limited empirical support, that
they suggest important variables applicable to our research problem. In
In this case, it is necessary to build a theoretical perspective.
4. Interesting but partial discoveries that do not fit into a theory, in this
cases are organized as logical and coherent backgrounds, highlighting the
more relevant in each case.
5. That there are only guides not yet studied and vaguely related ideas with
the research problem. In this case, the researcher has to seek literature
that, although it does not refer to the specific problem of the research, helps him to
to orient oneself within it.

In cases when reviewing the literature, a theory or theoretical model is not found.
in which to frame the study, some authors prefer not to speak of a theoretical framework but
from a conceptual or reference framework.

In the theory of the problem, it is advisable to relate the theoretical framework to the problem and not to the
problem of where it arises. There can be no theoretical framework that does not have a relationship
with the problem (Tamayo and Tamayo, 2003).

When developing the theoretical framework, the problem may be questioned, reformulated, and even
changed.

Establishment of the Hypothesis and the variables

The next step is to establish precise guidelines for the research problem.
the phenomenon that is being studied. These guides are the hypotheses. In a research
we can have one or more hypotheses; and sometimes we don't have any.

Hypotheses indicate what we are looking for or trying to prove and can be defined
as tentative explanations of the investigated phenomenon formulated as
propositions are not necessarily true; they are tentative explanations, not the
the facts themselves, the researcher cannot ensure that they will be proven when formulating them;
Subsequently, it will be investigated whether the hypothesis is accepted or rejected.

Since the problem is commonly expressed as a question, in the hypothesis the

the researcher expresses the tentative answer that he suggests as a solution to the problem that
previously raised. The hypotheses arise from the formulation of the problem and from the
literature review. The quality of the hypothesis is positively related to the
degree of thoroughness with which the literature has been reviewed. In this sense, it constitutes
a great danger in scientific research is formulating hypotheses without having reviewed
carefully the literature, as we may make mistakes such as hypothesizing something
highly proven or hypothesize something that has been emphatically rejected.

The main difficulties that a researcher faces in defining the hypothesis are:
. Unclear formulation of the problem.
. Lack of knowledge or absence of clarity in the theoretical framework.

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. Lack of ability to logically use the theoretical framework.

. Lack of knowledge about the appropriate research techniques to formulate hypotheses
in due form.

The hypotheses vary depending on the type of research being conducted. In the
exploratory studies, sometimes, the objective of the research may simply be to
obtain the minimum knowledge that allows us to formulate a hypothesis. It is also
acceptable that, in this case, are not very precise, such as that the planets possess some
type of atmosphere, without specifying what elements it is composed of.

Descriptive work generally presents hypotheses of the type 'all X'

They possess, to some extent, the characteristic Y. We can also make statements about the
type "X belongs to type Y", as when we say that a technology is capital-intensive.
In these cases, we describe, classifying it, the object of our interest, including it in a
complex ideal type of higher order. Finally, we can construct hypotheses of the type 'X
produce (or affects) Y", where we will be in the presence of a relationship between variables.

Correlational studies involve the evaluation of the relationship between variables and have a
explanatory value, since it is desired to know which two concepts or variables are related
in a certain way, providing explanatory information that establishes a relationship between
variables (in a correlation that can be multiple), without needing to establish how they occur
these associations. In a correlational hypothesis, the order in which they occur is not that important.
place the variables. Under certain testing or contrasting conditions, the goal is to see
how the variables under study behave. In this way, it becomes essential
formulate the research hypotheses with clarity, taking into account thevariables
interveners (if any), their connection and their impact on the investigated phenomenon.

Only in the cases of explanatory research is it necessary to clearly state which

these are the hypotheses of the research. In descriptive research, and even more so in
exploratory studies, it is possible to omit the hypotheses, either because they are so broad and vague
defined that say very little to the reader of the research report, or because it is not possible
or necessary to verify them.

To verify or reject the hypothesis that has been previously formulated, confronting
theoretical statement with empirical facts, is the primary objective of any study that
try to explain some field of reality.

Within the characteristics of hypotheses, we can point out that:

a) They must refer to a real situation (social, technical, or symbolic)
b) It must be logical and in accordance with known phenomena and not be in conflict with
established laws or principles:
c) In their wording, the hypotheses must be understandable, precise, and as much
possible concretes
d) The proposed relationship between the variables must be clear and plausible (logical)
e) The terms of the relationship between the variables must be observable and
measurable, that is to say, having references in reality.

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They must be related to methods and techniques available to test them.

They must be objective, free from the researcher's own values.
They must be the direct transformation of the research questions.

The main functions of hypotheses are:

a) Guide the research. They provide order and logic to the study.
b) They have a descriptive and explanatory function,
c) Test theories.
d) Suggest theories.

The formulation of the Hypothesis must cover the following points:

a) Precise identification of the variables. (the same as those appearing in the Problem)
b) Conceptual Definition of the variables.
c) Operational Definition of the variables.

This data (conceptual and operational) will allow three important things in the
research
design the data collection instrument(s)
2. observe, record and even quantify the data of the variables we study.
3. assistance in the preparation of conclusions

A hypothesis is generally specified by the if - then structure (when intervening

two variables). When there are more than two variables, the most common structures are:
. If P, then Q, under the conditions R and S.
. If P1, P2, and P3, then Q.

To determine the Hypothesis, two main steps can be distinguished:

a) Find the aspect, relationship, or factor that could be a solution to the researched issue.
b) To express that aspect, relationship, or factor in an appropriate form that is verifiable.

In the first step, two situations may arise: that the problem to be investigated has been
determined or not in advance; when there is an intuition of a hypothesis without it existing
explicit prior formulation of the problem, transitioning from the hypothesis to the formulation of the
problem; when the problem is determined in advance, defining the hypothesis is easier.

Even though the formulation of hypotheses is fundamentally imaginative, there are techniques that
they can help with this task as expressed below:
1. The examination of the literature on the subject to deduce reference themes, which
they serve as a working hypothesis.
2. The meeting to discuss the research group for this purpose.
3. The group interview with competent or interested individuals in the research
4. Interviews with individuals selected for their information or involvement in the subject.

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Hypotheses can be found by looking for causes of certain effects or the effects of
certain causes. They can be formulated starting from an independent variable and the results
(dependent variable) that can lead to.

Another way to infer hypotheses is through deductions of consequences from principles.

accepted for the purposes of empirical verification.

Hypotheses can also be constructed through arguments of analogy:

1. Substantive; when the response of an element to a stimulus or phenomenon suggests the
hypothesis that another different element will have the same stimulus-relationship;
2. Estructural: Cuando se supone que la respuesta de un conjunto de elemento tendrá la
same response as a subset of elements.

Hypotheses can also be constructed inductively.

To the inference that goes from particular statements to general ones, (study X interferes in
the study Y)
The generalization (any element of X interferes with any element of Y)

Another type of hypothesis formation related to induction is generalization.

empirical-inductive (the elements of set X present a response Z).

To evaluate the Hypothesis, the following should be considered:

. They are susceptible to being quantified.

. It is in correlation and harmony with the set of hypotheses of the project of the
research.
. Respond clearly and precisely to the posed problem, that is, indicate the
relationship expected between the variables.
. It can be verified.

Types of Hypotheses
Hypotheses can be of various types depending on the nature of the relationship between the
variables that one wants to express in the proposition. According to Cortes and Iglesias (2004):
A general classification of the quantitative approach is fundamentally as follows:

1. Research Hypothesis. They are tentative propositions about the possible relationships

between two or more variables of the research problem. They can be descriptive, if

describe a variable in terms of preset values. Correlational hypotheses that

specify relationships between two or more variables, not only establish whether two or more variables

they are correlated if not how they are. Hypothesis of the difference between groups. They have the

objective of making comparisons between groups involved in the research. Hypothesis

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of causal relationships. They establish cause-effect relationships, not only affirm the

relationships between the variables and how these occur, but also propose a sense of

understanding between them.

2. Null Hypotheses. They are in a way the reverse of research hypotheses, constituting

propositions about the relationship between variables only serve to refute or deny it

which states the research hypothesis. They are denoted as H.0.

3. Alternative Hypotheses. They reflect alternate possibilities against the null hypotheses or of

investigation. They are denoted as H1.

4. Statistical Hypotheses. Exclusive to the quantitative approach and represent the transformation of

the null and alternative research hypotheses in statistical symbols. These symbols

They can be >=, <= (unilateral) or = signs (bilateral).

Variables
A well-formulated hypothesis should contain elements or terms that are observable, and
as a result, subject to measurement. Research cannot be developed if not
they use indicators that measure the variables of the proposed hypotheses. A variable is
a property that can vary (take on different values) and whose variation is susceptible to
to be measured. That is, the variable applies to an element or a set of elements, the
they can acquire various values regarding the variable.

When formulating a hypothesis, it is essential to define the terms or variables that are being
included in it. This is necessary for several reasons:
. So that the researcher, and anyone who reads the research can share the
same meaning regarding the terms or variables included in the hypotheses.
. We ensure that the variables can be evaluated in reality, through the
senses (possibility of empirical testing, condition of the hypotheses).
. Being able to confront our research with other similar ones (if we have defined them
our variables, we can compare our definitions with those of other studies
to find out 'if we are talking about the same thing', and if this comparison is positive, we will be able to
confront the results of our research with the results of others.
. Better evaluate the results of our research, because the
variables (and not only the hypotheses) have been contextualized.

Variables are the most constant elements of any research. In observation, one...
It discovers and measures them. In classification, they are grouped. In tabulation, they are related.

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the analysis is studied and interpreted. In the prediction, its relationships or its will be taken from it.
presence or absence as conditioning factors.

They gain value for scientific research when they can be related to
others (to be part of a hypothesis or a theory). In this case, they are usually referred to as
hypothetical constructs or constructions.

Types of variables
Variables are generally analyzed in their connection or association with others.
variables, and not in isolation, so that the effects produced can be studied.
association of the same. For this, the categories will be taken into account, which are the values
probabilities that a variable can acquire, and the dimensions, which are determined
aspects of a variable. One classification that can be made of variables is the
next:
Depending on the ease of their measurement, they can be simple or complex:
. unidimensional (weight), they are generally easy to measure;
. dichotomous (with two values, such as sex, whether the person is a smoker or not, etc.)
. Multidimensional (acoustic quality) their measurement reaches high levels of difficulty;

Depending on the hypothesis, they can be independent (determining variable, which occurs with
independent (which is the one produced or induced by the independent variable),
which occurs in the causal relationships that hypotheses often establish. To
establish a causal relationship between both variables in the hypothesis, it is clear that one of
the variables is the cause of the phenomenon stated in the hypothesis, and the other variable is
consequence of such phenomenon.

In general terms, those that designate the dependent variables are taken as such.
variables to explain, the effects or results regarding which one must seek a reason or
reason for being. The independents are the explanatory variables, whose association or whose
influence on the dependent variable is intended to be discovered in the research.

The types of relationship between independent variables (X) and dependent variables (Y) are:
. Reversible: If X, then Y, but also if Y, then X.
. Irreversible: If X, then Y, but not vice versa.
. Deterministic: If X, then always Y.
. Stochastic: If X, then probably Y.
. Of sequence: If X, then later Y.
. Coexisting: If X, then Y as well.
. Sufficient: If X, then Y regardless of anything.
. Contingent: If X, then Y, but only if Z.
. Necessary: If X, and only if X, then Y.
. Substitutable: If X, then Y, but if Z, then also Y.

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Depending on the distance they have from the empirical plane, they can be manifest.
(which are observable), and latent (not directly observable), which are transferred
with greater obstacles to the empirical plane.

Regarding whether a distinction can be made between qualitative and quantitative variables,
there is no consensus on this matter. Some claim that the variables regarding
such matters necessarily involve a quantification, and therefore cannot be discussed about
qualitative variables, and there are those who claim that there may be qualitative variables. In
In this second case, according to the research objectives, the variables can be
qualitative or quantitative. If it deals with categories that are attributes or properties, one
It will deal with qualitative variables, and they will be quantitative when measuring magnitudes.

Depending on the context in which the relationship occurs, the intervening variables can be -
that refer to the plainly and simply contextual-individual aspects, which are related to the
elements (their peculiar characteristics) or collective, analytical - based on each one of
the elements of the studied subset, or global -referring to the set-.

It has been seen that the definition of the variables of a hypothesis constitutes a central point of
Any research, without the definition of variables, is not research, and this definition.
it must be done in two ways: conceptually and operationally. In other words, the definition
the conceptualization of variables must be transformed into an operational concept, selecting
the indicators, at the directly observable level, that allow measuring the concepts,
responding to the relationship expressed in the hypothesis. The two are explained below.
separate.

Conceptual definition
Every researcher must use concepts to organize their data and perceive the
relationships that exist between them. This is done by building the concept that identifies it.
each variable; the conceptualization of the variables is expressed in the form of a definition
which sufficiently indicates what that variable is, and which therefore also serves to indicate it
what it is not. This is done to avoid confusion when referring to them throughout the
investigation. This type of definition is obtained from specialized texts on the subject of
the variables.

Each field of science has its special theoretical concepts and to name them, one
they need some special words. Sometimes the words of standard language have been
adopted for scientific use and have acquired a special meaning, whose definition can be
to be found in the manuals on that field; on other occasions some words
completely new terms have been coined by inventive researchers. In any case,
each researcher must use the normal vocabulary of their research field as well as
it is possible, so that it can directly benefit from previous results and, to the
inverse, their new results are easy to read and thus contribute effectively to the
general theory of that field.

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Basically, the conceptual definition of the variables constitutes an articulated abstraction.

in words to facilitate their understanding and their adaptation to practical requirements of
the research. In the construction of concepts, the following must be taken into account:

. The diversity of the objects they can deal with.

. The diversity of metatheoretical conceptions from which one proceeds to the
construction of concepts.
. The diversity of theories and paradigms in different disciplines.

Some concepts are closely linked to objects and the facts they represent,
that is why when defining, it seeks to ensure that the people who arrive at a
research should fully understand the meaning with which the term is to be used
concept throughout the entire research.

The problem that leads us to the definition of concepts is that many of the terms
that are used in research are taken from everyday language and, generally, the
the researcher uses them in another sense.

The functions of concepts can be summarized as follows:

They are instruments through which the operation of thinking is carried out.
In this sense, they are incorporated into sets of thoughts.
They are the foundation upon which communication is developed.
They allow organizing information and perceiving relationships between data.

These definitions are necessary but insufficient to define the variables of the
research, because they do not directly relate us to reality. After all
they remain concepts. Scientists must define the variables used in their
hypotheses in such a way that the hypotheses can be tested. This is possible using the
what is known as operational definitions.

Operational definitions
Since concepts are abstract and in research we need to "trace" facts or
concrete and tangible events, it is also necessary to make a description of the
observable facts or behaviors, which are estimated to be the way in which that variable
manifesto.

In the formulation of hypotheses, it is suggested how the variables will be operationalized,

but it is in the stage corresponding to the development of the collection instruments
the data, in which they are selected or designed and adapted to the particular context of the study.

Operational definitions constitute a manual of instructions for the researcher.

It constitutes the set of procedures that describes the activities that an observer
must perform (the steps to follow) to measure a variable. They must define the variables of the
hypothesis in such a way that they can be tested. An operational definition
assign a meaning to a hypothetical or variable construction, specifying the activities or
necessary operations to measure it; it is the one that indicates that a certain phenomenon exists,

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and it specifies precisely in which units this can be measured

phenomenon. An operational definition of a concept consists of a statement of the
necessary operations to produce the phenomenon. Once the recording method and
The measurement of a phenomenon has been specified, it is said that this phenomenon has been defined.
operationally. Therefore, when a term is defined operationally, it is intended to
indicate the indicators that will serve for the realization of the phenomenon that concerns us;
there, if possible, terms that can be measured should be used. The
operational definitions establish a bridge between concepts or constructs
hypothetical and the actual observations, behaviors, and activities.

Almost always there are several operational definitions (or ways to operationalize)
of a variable. When the researcher has several alternatives to define
Operationally, a variable must choose the one that provides the most information about the
variable, better captures her essence, is more suited to her context and is more precise. The
Criteria for evaluating an operational definition are basically three: 'adequacy to
context
available or the creation of one's own operational definition is closely related to a
adequate literature review. When it has been careful, one can have a range
broader range of operational definitions to choose from or more ideas to create a new one.

The concepts must meet the following requirements:

. There must be agreement and continuity in the attribution of certain content
figurative or certain words.
. They must be precisely defined, that is, with a semantic content.
exactly established.
. They must have an empirical reference, that is, refer to something comprehensible.
observable (even if indirectly).

The function of the definition consists of presenting the main features of the structure of a
concept to make it more precise, delimiting it from other concepts, in order to make it possible
a systematic exploration of the objective it represents. For this, it is necessary to have
account:
. Validity: it means that our definition conforms to the concept. It should refer to
precisely to that concept and not to something similar. If our definition is valid, we are
measuring exactly what we intend to measure and not anything else.
. Reliability or reproducibility: it means that if we repeat our measurement or recording, the
the result will always be the same.
. Use of clear language. It should be expressed in precise and accessible words, not
it must contain metaphors or literary figures.
. Precise and unitary meaning.

There are some variables that do not require their conceptual definition to be made explicit in the
research report, because this definition is relatively obvious and shared. The
the same title of the variable defines it. But there are few variables that do not require one.
operational definition so that they can be empirically evaluated, even when in the

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In the study, do not formulate hypotheses. Whenever there are variables, they must be defined.
operationally.

The operationalization of the terms largely depends on the delimitations.

space-time aspects of the research problem. Regarding time, factors influence
such as the duration of the research, the historical context, and the background of the problem,
how it is conceived in the present and what perspectives it presents for the future. In relation to the
space, the geographic location of the research matters, its interrelation with others
areas or related disciplines, so that the research can be compared with others
similar.

Ultimately, the way concepts are constructed depends on the conceptions of the
knowledge and the reality from which one starts. The concepts are present everywhere
and in each of the moments of a research process, vigilance is necessary
constant to always work with precise concepts. Precision not only in relation to its
univocity and with its statement or definition, but also in its relation to the theory of
knowledge, with scientific paradigms, with the object of study and with the situation
problem that originated the research.

The conceptual definition is necessary to connect the study to theory and definitions.
operational are essential to carry out any research, since the
Data must be collected in terms of observable facts.

Empirical definitions announce how the concept will be observed or measured in the world.
real, or in empiricism. Since the definition explains the operations for observation, it is
sometimes referred to as operational definition.

The researcher must define the indicators of the variables before conducting the collection.
of data, and for that, it should use operational terms, that is, that produce data
concrete, that are quantifiable. The operational definitions will be appropriate if
data collection instruments provide information that is relevant to the
concepts that represent, which are presented in the conceptual definition of the
hypothesis variables.

Variables, dimensions, and indicators

Since there is a relatively broad knowledge of the topic being researched, it is
so when it should be isolated, within the problem the most important factors that
we can find in it. It is pertinent to choose the most relevant, sensitive, and
standardized, carrying out this process in the strictest and most rigorous way.

In general, variables are measured by their indicators, and such indicators are defined, to
in turn, by values. But this is not as easy as it seems; there are factors that will determine
the lesser or greater complexity of the variable y is the ability to observe it. In almost
In any research, we can find variables that are not directly observable.
therefore they need to be built with other types of variables and establish indicators.

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One of the first objectives that the researcher must ensure is that the variables
puedan ser evaluadas a través de una prueba empírica, lo cual es una condición fundamental
of the hypotheses.

When we encounter complex variables, where the transition from the definition
Conceptual operationalization requires intermediate instances, so it can be
make a distinction between variables, dimensions, and indicators. In summary, it can
to assert that the transition from dimension to indicator makes a journey from the general to the
in particular, from the theoretical plane to the empirically verifiable plane.

The dimensions would be sub-variables or variables with a level closer to

indicator. In the case of defining the complex variable, we encounter different
subdimensions that are part of the variable. Each of these subvariables are the
dimensions of the complex variable.

In turn, these dimensions, in order to be empirically contrasted by the researcher,

need to be operationalized into indicators, which are nothing more than parameters that
they contribute to locating the situation in which the problem to be studied is found. In a sense
restricted, the indicators are data.

II. 2. Outline of the method

According to Jiménez (1998), the method "must describe in detail all the procedures
that are intended to be used to achieve the objectives -of the research; explaining how
The information will be obtained, processed, and analyzed. For this, Gómez-Peresmitré and Reidl
(2004) identifies a general method and special methods; while the former seeks to
truth with a single strategy; the seconds depend on the nature of the object of
Study (techniques). While for Jiménez (1998) "There is,... a logical order and generally
accepted for this exhibition; which may consist of describing:
. The Universe and sample.
. The overall design of the research.
. Description and operationalization of all variables.
. Description of the most important techniques and procedures.

Whereas for Hernández (2010), he considers that the order of the protocol may include:
. Definition of the scope of the research to be conducted.
. Conception or choice of research design.
. Sample selection.
. Data collection.
. Data analysis.

For the current course, the topics described below will be considered.

Type of research
To establish the research strategy, it is recommended to first determine the
type of study that will be developed; for which, the approach must be clear:

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quantitative and/or qualitative; in addition to the scope of the research: exploratory,

descriptive, correlational, or explanatory; since this leads to the choice of the design of the
research (experimental or non-experimental), the data that is collected, the way of
obtain them, the sampling and other components of the research process. Therefore,
should indicate the approach, scope, and design of the research.

Universe of research
Within the protocol and the final work, it is necessary to define the unit of analysis (individuals,
organizations, newspapers, communities, situations, events, etc.)" Hernández (2010).
To subsequently delimit the population, indicating 'the number of these and their origin'
Jiménez (1998).

Jiménez (1998) recommends "mentioning the inclusion criteria [...] of the universe of
study"; it also points out that "Many times it is necessary or convenient to clarify criteria of
"exclusion". With this, it is possible to describe the general characteristics of the target population.
study to which it will be investigated.

Sample or sampling decisions

When in the research, it occurs that it is very difficult to observe or analyze the entire
population, it will be necessary to use a sample.

Sampling means taking a portion of a population or a universe as

representative of that population or universe. This definition does not say that the sample taken
representative sea, rather, that a portion of the population is taken and this is considered
representative (Kerlinger, 2002).

Types of samples
There are two types of samples, probabilistic and non-probabilistic; the samples
Probabilistic methods use some form of randomized sampling in one or more of their stages. The
non-probability samples do not use random sampling. In probability sampling
the emphasis lies in the method and the theory that supports it, while in sampling it does not
probabilistic the emphasis lies in the sampling decisions of the person who performs the
research, are used to determine the sample in qualitative research.

Probabilistic sampling
For the sample selection to be appropriate in a probabilistic procedure, one must
they must take into account the following criteria:
. Choose the type of sample
. Define the sample size
. Apply the selection procedure

Probabilistic sampling methods:

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Research Workshop I

. Simple random sampling is the method of obtaining a sample in such a way that
each member of that population or universe has the same possibility of being
selected (Kerlinger, 2002).
. Stratified sampling requires that the population be divided into strata first.
as men and women, African Americans and Mexican Americans, etc. After
random samples are selected from each stratum.
. Cluster sampling – the method most frequently used in surveys
Kerlinger (2002) - is the consecutive random sampling of units or sets and
subsets. A cluster can be defined as a group of things of the same
class is a set of sample elements united by some characteristic(s)
in common. In cluster sampling, the universe is fractioned, and then the
clusters are randomly sampled.

The formulas to calculate the sample size in descriptive studies are:

a) For an infinite population (when the total number of observation units is unknown
that integrate it or the population is greater than 10,000):

Z2p q
n=
e2
b) The formula used to determine the sample size (estimating a
proportion) when we know the total population is:
Z2p q N
n=
(N -1) e2+ Z2p q
Where:
n = sample size.
Z = value from Table 1 Normal Distribution N (0,1), corresponding to the level of
sample confidence.
p = probability of occurrence, 50% is recommended.
q = probability that it does not happen, 50% is recommended.
N = total population.
e = sampling error, if Z is equal to 95% then the error is 5%; if Z is equal to
99%, so the error is 1%.

The units of analysis or sample elements must be chosen randomly to

to ensure that each element has the same probability of being chosen. Being able to be
through a drawing (via raffle); of tables or programs of random numbers or by
a systematic selection procedure; where based on the list of the analysis universe,
A K interval is determined by the size of the population (N) and the size of the sample (n).
So we have K = N/n. Where the first element is selected at random, and the
next applying the previously established interval; for example if the interval is of
9, every ninth subject is chosen.

Non-probabilistic sampling
Non-probability samples, also known as directed samples, are used in various
quantitative and qualitative research. They imply an informal selection process;
however, three fundamental criteria are required to select the sample and

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what should be included in the research protocol when sampling is not used
probabilistic.

Table 1 Normal Distribution N (0,1), for lower cumulative probability.

z0 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 z0
0.0 0.5000 0.5040 0.5080 0.5120 0.5160 0.5199 0.5239 0.5279 0.5319 0.5359 0,0
0.1 0.5398 0.5438 0.5478 0.5517 0.5557 0.5596 0.5636 0.5675 0.5714 0.5753 0,1
0,2 0,5793 0.5832 0.5871 0.5910 0.5948 0.5987 0.6026 0.6064 0.6103 0.6141 0.2
0.3 0.6179 0.6217 0.6255 0.6293 0,6331 0.6368 0,6406 0,6443 0,6480 0.6517 0.3
0.4 0.6554 0.6591 0.6628 0.6664 0.6700 0.6736 0.6772 0,6808 0.6844 0.6879 0.4
0.5 0.6915 0.6950 0.6985 0.7019 0.7054 0.7088 0.7123 0.7157 0.7190 0.7224 0.5
0.6 0.7257 0.7291 0.7324 0.7357 0.7389 0.7422 0.7454 0.7486 0.7517 0.7549 0.6
["0.7","0.7580"] 0.7611 0.7642 0.7673 0.7704 0.7734 0.7764 0,7794 0.7823 0.7852 0.7
0.8 0.7881 0.7910 0.7939 0.7967 0,7995 0.8023 0.8051 0.8078 0.8106 0.8133 0.8
0,9 0,8159 0.8186 0.8212 0.8238 0.8264 0.8289 0.8315 0.8340 0.8365 0.8389 0.9
1,0 0,8413 0.8438 0.8461 0.8485 0,8508 0.8531 0.8554 0.8577 0.8599 0.8621 1.0
1.1 0.8643 0.8665 0.8686 0.8708 0.8729 0.8749 0.8770 0.8790 0.8810 0.8830 1,1
1.2 0.8849 0.8869 0.8888 0.8907 0.8925 0.8944 0.8962 0.8980 0.8997 0.9015 1,2
1.3 0.9032 0.9049 0.9066 0.9082 0.9099 0.9115 0,9131 0,9147 0.9162 0.9177 1,3
1.4 0.9192 0.9207 0.9222 0.9236 0.9251 0.9265 0.9279 0,9292 0,9306 0.9319 1.4
1,5 0,9332 0.9345 0.9357 0.9370 0.9382 0.9394 0.9406 0.9418 0,9429 0,9441 1.5
1,6 0,9452 0,9463 0.9474 0.9484 0.9495 0,9505 0.9515 0.9525 0.9535 0.9545 1.6
1,7 0,9554 0.9564 0.9573 0.9582 0.9591 0.9599 0.9608 0.9616 0.9625 0.9633 1.7
1,8 0,9641 0.9649 0.9656 0.9664 0.9671 0,9678 0.9686 0.9693 0.9699 0.9706 1.8
1.9 0.9713 0.9719 0,9726 0.9732 0.9738 0.9744 0.9750 0.9756 0,9761 0.9767 1.9
2,0 0,9772 0.9778 0.9783 0,9788 0.9793 0.9798 0.9803 0.9808 0,9812 0.9817 2.0
2.1 0.9821 0.9826 0.9830 0.9834 0,9838 0,9842 0.9846 0.9850 0.9854 0.9857 2.1
2.2 0.9861 0.9864 0.9868 0.9871 0.9875 0.9878 0.9881 0,9884 0.9887 0.9890 2.2
2.3 0.9893 0.9896 0.9898 0.9901 0.9904 0.9906 0.9909 0.9911 0.9913 0.9916 2,3
2.4 0.9918 0.9920 0.9922 0.9925 0.9927 0.9929 0.9931 0,9932 0,9934 0.9936 2.4
2,5 0,9938 0,9940 0.9941 0.9943 0,9945 0,9946 0.9948 0.9949 0.9951 0,9952 2.5
2,6 0,9953 0.9955 0.9956 0.9957 0.9959 0.9960 0.9961 0.9962 0,9963 0.9964 2.6
2.7 0.9965 0.9966 0.9967 0.9968 0.9969 0.9970 0.9971 0.9972 0.9973 0.9974 2.7
2,8 0,9974 0.9975 0.9976 0.9977 0.9977 0.9978 0.9979 0.9979 0.9980 0,9981 2.8
2,9 0,9981 0.9982 0.9982 0.9983 0,9984 0.9984 0.9985 0.9985 0.9986 0.9986 2.9
3.0 0.99865 0.99869 0.99874 0.99878 0.99882 0.99886 0.99889 0.99893 0.99896 0.99900 3.0
3.1 0.99903 0.99906 0.99910 0.99913 0.99916 0.99918 0.99921 0.99924 0.99926 0.99929 3.1
3,2 0,99931 0,99934 0,99936 0,99938 0,99940 0,99942 0,99944 0,99946 0,99948 0,99950 3,2
3,3 0,99952 0,99953 0,99955 0,99957 0,99958 0,99960 0,99961 0,99962 0,99964 0,99965 3,3
3.4 0.99966 0.99968 0.99969 0.99970 0.99971 0.99972 0.99973 0.99974 0.99975 0.99976 3.4
3.5 0.99977 0.99978 0.99978 0.99979 0.99980 0.99981 0.99981 0.99982 0.99983 0.99983 3.5
3,6 0,99984 0,99985 0,99985 0,99986 0,99986 0,99987 0,99987 0,99988 0,99988 0,99989 3,6
3.7 0.99989 0.99990 0.99990 0.99990 0.99991 0.99991 0.99992 0.99992 0.99992 0.99992 3.7
3.8 0.99993 0.99993 0.99993 0.99994 0.99994 0.99994 0.99994 0.99995 0.99995 0.99995 3.8
3.9 0.99995 0.99995 0.99996 0.99996 0.99996 0.99996 0.99996 0.99996 0.99997 0.99997 3.9
z0 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 z0

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Sampling decision criteria

. Selection of the relevant contexts to the research problem, and once
Having done this, select the individual cases.
. Consider accessibility and the available resources.
. Representativity, that is, choosing the study subjects that represent the object
to investigate.

Non-probabilistic sampling methods

. Quota sampling is one where the knowledge of the population - sex, race,
region, etc. - is used to select the members of the sample that are
representative, 'typical' and appropriate for the purposes of the research.
. Purposive sampling is characterized by the use of judgments and deliberate intentions.
to obtain representative samples by including areas or groups that are presumed to be
typical of the sample.
. Accidental sampling is the weakest form of sampling. Here, samples are taken.
that are readily available. This practice is difficult to defend, although, when used
with reasonable knowledge and care, does not deserve the bad reputation it has.

It is important that all non-probabilistic sampling be theoretically conducted (and not

product of a personal decision without basis), the selection of informants, episodes and
interactions must be conducted through a conceptual approach (Glasser and Strauss,
1967).

Data collection procedures

Once we select the appropriate research design and the suitable sample
in agreement with our study problem and hypothesis, the next stage consists of
determine the methods, techniques, and procedures that will be used to achieve them
1998); that is, to describe how we are going to collect the relevant data about
the variables involved in the hypothesis. 'This implies developing a detailed plan of
procedures that lead us to gather data" (Hernández, et al., 2006); as it says
Jiménez (1998) "the researcher must specify all details in order to ensure the
greater uniformity in data collection," taking into account that "the research
it is not done to apply a technique, but to evaluate its results” specifying that “if it
deals with known procedures which may be replaced by a reference to the source
bibliographic where it is explained.

Collecting the necessary data for the research "depends largely on the type of
research and the problem posed for it” (Tamayo, 2003).

We measure, standardize, and quantify the data (Bostwick and Kyte, 2005). Therefore,
While Tamayo and Tamayo (2003) point out that the outline of the method should include:

a) The research technique;

b) the steps that will be taken; and, possibly,

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c) the instructions for the person who will collect the data.

While Hernández et al. (2006) identify that the plan must determine:
a) Identification of the data source and its location

b) Select a measurement instrument (the data collection instrument).

c) Apply that measuring instrument. That is, to obtain the observations and measurements of the

variables that are of interest for our study (measuring variables).

d) Prepare the obtained measurements so that they can be analyzed correctly (to this

this activity is referred to as data encoding.

These based on:

1. The variables, concepts, or attributes to be measured (contained in the statement and hypothesis or

study guidelines.

2. The operational definitions. The way we have operationalized the variables is

crucial for determining the method to measure them, which in turn is essential for

make inferences from the data.

3. The sample.

4. The available resources (time, institutional support, economic, etc.).

According to Jiménez (1998), in addition to establishing the design or general strategy for the
data collection, forms must be prepared to gather the information.

Data analysis
Rosa Jiménez Paneque (1998) points out that "This point is virtually the last of the stage
of planning, where the researcher describes how he will process and analyze it, to extract
his conclusions; and establishes:

Some designs imply how the results will be analyzed; it results in

extremely useful to structure the output tables and the statistical hypothesis tests that

they will apply to the data. This will provide an idea of the information that will be available at the end of the

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Research Workshop I

result processing which will allow the researcher to understand how it will fulfill the

objectives and will also provide a means to organize your own ideas.

However, in some studies, particularly descriptive ones, planning will need to be done.

specific way in which the information will be elaborated and analyzed. It includes the description of

the tables that are to be constructed with the data, the summary measures that will be calculated

to be able to analyze the collected information or the relationships between variables that intend

to determine oneself. This task is basically the responsibility of Statistics.

According to Siamperi (2006), 'Currently, the quantitative analysis of data is carried out
done by computer or computer. No one does it manually anymore, especially if there is
a considerable volume of data."; and points out that the process to carry it out is as follows:

Step 1: select an analysis program. Those typically include two parts in segments.

Step 2: run the program.

Step 3: explore the data

Step 4: evaluate the reliability and validity achieved by the measurement instrument

Step 5: analyze the proposed hypotheses using statistical tests (statistical analysis)

inferential

Step 6: conduct additional analysis

Step 7: prepare the results for presentation.

However, for Jiménez (1998), a "widely spread vice currently is that of

mention the name of a statistical program or package of programs used for
to run the tests." This is derived from the fact that "commercial packages only have programs
of the known algorithms for calculating the statistics.

II. 3. Necessary Financial and Human Resources

In the planning of the research, it is necessary to establish the activities and the resources.
to carry it out. Listing all the resources for its proper completion.
It is advisable to take into account the following resources: a) Human. b) Institutional. c)
Economic. d) Schedule.

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Research Workshop I

Within the resources line, it is essential to consider: required time,

space for work and budget for expenses (for materials, transportation, salaries,
reproduction of writings, etc.).

Financial resources. The research costs will be specified in detail, from

in such a way that the researchers know what the necessary financial resource will be
study. If the research is funded by any institution, it is necessary to describe the
details of the agreement. Regardless of the source of funding, it is useful to break down
all the indicated resources, so it will be necessary to generate a special form in the
which specifies each of these items.

Human resources. It specifies which people (laboratory technicians, surveyors,

nurses, secretaries, professionals or others) will carry out certain activities in the
study, and includes data that allow to evidence the information that enables them to
generate, gather, process and analyze the required information.

These resources are essential for the development of the research, so it must be
carry out a proper listing and breakdown of them, if a proper analysis is not carried out of
the resources to be used, at some point in the research process there will be a need
If using any resource that has not been listed, that is where it will start to happen.
problems in the research, resulting in losses of time, money, etc.

Human resources are made up of knowledge, experiences, motivation,

aptitudes, attitudes, potentialities, among others, that people who make up the
organization.

Schedule. Generally, a research project requires several weeks, months, and even
years for its completion. Therefore, the total research requires different types of
activities, times, human resources, materials, and financial resources.

To plan the conduct of the research, several procedures have been developed that
they allow organizing each step and satisfactorily meeting the time and the
costs, based on carrying out the methodology on time and in the proper manner.

In this step, a proposed index of the work scheme is presented, which includes the
content of the protocol and the development of the research. A program is determined.
activities for conducting the research, includes each and every step
applicable. The total time established in the program must not exceed what is authorized for the
development, completion, and presentation of the research work.

The most commonly used procedure is the Gantt chart, in which each one is broken down.
activities in a time scheme. This scheme shows the activities
required and the period over which each one will be developed, as well as the time in which
Each activity should begin, taking into account that the one preceding it has been completed.
finished, or has progressed enough. As the work progresses, the bars of the
activities are being marked, and with that at any moment it can be determined if the
plan projected himself is fulfilling.

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Research Workshop I

Bibliography

Alfaro Rodríguez, Carlos Humberto, 2012, Methodology of applied scientific research to

Engineering, National University of Callao, Lima, Peru.

Bunge, Mario, 1998, The science. On method y your philosophy

[Link] last
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Cortés Cortés Manuel E., Miriam Iglesias León, 2004, Generalities on Methodology of the
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Gómez-Peresmitré, Gilda; Lucy Reidl; Research Methodology in the Sciences

social sciences; UNAM; Mexico [Link]/Investigacion2/pdf/lucy_gilda.pdf
last consultation: September 7, 2014.

Hernández Sampieri, Roberto; Carlos Fernández Collado; Pilar Baptista Lucio; 2010; The
Process of Scientific Research; McGraw-Hill/Interamericana Editores, S.A.
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Jiménez Paneque, Rosa; 1998; Metodología de la Investigación, Elementos Básicos para la

Clinical Research; Medical Sciences; Havana.

Rivas, Juan; 2012; Elabora tu monografía paso a paso,Tipos de antecedentes de

investigation, In[Link]
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Romero González, Zilath; 2009; Manual de investigación para principiantes; Cartagena de

India. Colombia; Free University.

Secretary of the Navy - Navy of Mexico; 2010; Manual for preparing and evaluating work
research; In[Link] last
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Tamayo y Tamayo, Mario; 2003; El Proceso de la Investigación Científica; Editorial Llmusa,

S.A. DEC.V.; Mexico City

Development of a research protocol 21