Eloïse Rudaz Summary SP2016

Carography & Caromatic

1. Introduction

1.1 Definitions
Cartography = Methodological field of production and exploitation of analog thematic maps in
a mechanical graphical environment.

Cartomatic = Methodological domain for the production of digital and analog thematic maps in
a computerized environment. A term that appeared in the 1980s (R. Brunet) which is a contraction of
mapping and computer science.

Geomatics = a set of methods and techniques in computer science that allows for the acquisition and representation,
to analyze and integrate geographic data. A contraction of 'geography' and 'computer science'. The
Geomatic consists of 2 distinct activities: collection, processing, and dissemination of geographic data.

Thematic map = graphical representation of the distribution of the properties of one or more phenomena
in space. Message (carrier of information), language (graphic), geometric dimensions
(spatial) and thematic.

Analytical map = map detailing the distribution of a single theme / phenomenon / parameter.

Synthetic map = map obtained by superimposing several analytical maps (establishing a relationship between
several themes).

1.2 Objectives of thematic mapping

Account for how the properties of a phenomenon are distributed in space:
description
Observe the effect of property distribution and their relationships in space: Exploration, analysis
Connecting properties for multiple themes: Multi-thematic comparison and/or
temporal (evolution)

Thematic maps serve purposes/functions:

Localization in space (what, where) / Measurement / Inventory (how many) / Spatial relationships between entities /
Spatial relations between several phenomena / Representation to formulate hypotheses within the framework of a
spatial analysis (distribution, relations) / Representation of the results of an analysis, study.

1.3 Parameters and types of maps

themes
A map is an image that highlights information.

The image is: flat (2 dimensions), distorted (according to the projection), reduced (scale of representation),
simplified (generalization), conventional (symbol, graphic semiology), interpreted (subjectivity).

The types of thematic maps are numerous and must be adapted to the nature of the phenomenon and the
purposes of the card!

– Distribution of the phenomenon in space

o Spatially discontinuous (discrete)

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o Spatially continuous
– Nature of the properties of the phenomenon
o Discontinue (discreet: categories)
o Continue or pseudo-continue (continuum, classes)
– Type d’objets concernés
o Points, lines, surface

Isochrone map = represented continuously, less suitable for representing inhabitants, better for
temperature.

Cartogram = modifies the surface area of the represented territories in relation to the number of inhabitants. Well if we want to.
represent a particularly unequal phenomenon.

Cartography = Grid, each cell of the grid has a population value.

1.4 Examples of documents

cartographic
Theme (represented phenomena)
Purpose of mapping
Illustrated region
Map scale
Projection
Graphic semiology (symbolism)

Political world map, map of ocean floors, world map, physical map (altitude = mountain range)
physical map (ground cover), political boundaries map, map base of Switzerland, ortho-image
land use, relief map and localities, road map...

Orthophoto = photo taken by a group in an airplane but these photos are rectified.

Geological map = red cross is an erratic block, purple zones are backfill (dump).

Digital terrain model = brings out the Sarine canyon and its meanders, it's a plane that sends a ray
who goes to the ground and comes back.

Modified cartogram by anamorphosis = countries modified to illustrate the number of inhabitants in relation to the
surface of the country.

2. Basic notions and concepts

2.1 Thematic map

A thematic map has 3 dimensions:

Geographic (spatial) entities geometric dimension (unit of description with points,

lines, areas, surfaces, meshes
Characteristics associated with entities thematic dimension (symbolism with symbols,
colors, shades, textures
Evolution of characteristics and/or entities temporal dimension (symbols, histograms)

A map is an information document containing several components necessary for it.

interpretation

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Spatial distribution of the properties of a phenomenon units of description (points, lines, areas,
mesh), graphic expression of the properties of the phenomenon or phenomena
Keys for describing informative content (map styling) themes (title, caption,
source), geometric (representation scales coordinate systems)
Reading markers Toponymy (indication of place names, villages, rivers, lakes...), spatial objects of
reference

!!! Put a title, a graphic scale !!!

Creation of a map Lecture interpretation of a map

Translation / representation of a Interpretation of graphical coding for
information using graphical language understanding of the message (information)
Encoding, transmitter Decoding, receiver

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Graphic semiology is the set of rules that allows the use of a graphic system of signs.
for the transmission of information.

It is the grammar of graphic language

It is the key to encoding and decoding a graphic and cartographic document.

Perception of reality

Reality is perceived from various perspectives:

The objectives pursued by the observer (Planner, geologist, economist, urban planner)
Taking into account the natural phenomena present
The culture of the observer

Diversity of needs, perceptions, representations Search for a model that makes the ...
various representations of reality.

!!!! The perspective of a map varies depending on the person looking at it (farmer, forester, geologist,
promoter...) !!!

2.2 Model of Reality

What are we modeling?

A state of the geographical space (spatial division)

o Status of spatial entities, e.g. spatial distribution of soils, vegetation, elements
geological...
A status of a natural or social phenomenon (thematic)
o State (properties) of a phenomenon in space, e.g. demographics, weather situation, distribution
precipitations...
The evolution of a natural or social phenomenon (temporal)
o Evolution of the properties of a phenomenon in space
o Evolution of spatial entities, e.g. migratory movement, behavior of a watershed,
traffic
Spatial relations between entities in geographic space (flow, proximity, accessibility)
arrangement

Descriptive model

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Photograph of the system at a given time

- Inventory of elements
- Properties of the elements, of the whole

Predictive model

Model allowing for the probable evolution of the phenomenon according to one (or more) scenarios (not to be assessed,
judged because it is a likely model not necessarily correct, possible that it is far from what will actually happen
to pass

Scenario

- Evolution sequence of a system expressed in probabilistic or possibilistic terms based on the model
predictive
- Hypothesis of evolution considering similar historical references or the experience of an expert,
economic impacts of a road alignment project on a regional system

Example: Cézanne's painting and geological map at 1:50000 of Catzigras

The colors on the geological map represent types of rocks, every map is an interpretation, the
tableau est assez proche de la perception de la réalité selon Cézanne, alors que pour le géologue il y a une grande
part of interpretation because some of the rocks are visible and others are under the forest.

2.3 Fundamental Spatial Concepts

Map scale (of representation)

- Relationship between distance on the map and distance in reality (quantifiable geometric index)
- Influences the degree of generalization of the graphical representation (thematic richness of the model)

Scale of observation or perception

- Resolution defined by the separability of two neighboring states of a phenomenon.

- Expresses itself in a range of map scales (large scale / small scale)
scale)

Notion of scale

A small number corresponds to a large scale 1 : 1,200,000 = 0.0000008

A big number corresponds to a small scale. 1:1,000,000,000 = 0.00000001

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A small-scale map therefore represents a large territory, and a large-scale map represents
a small territory. On a small scale, I analyze the whole of Switzerland, on a large scale, I analyze the district of Gruyère.
and on a very large scale, I analyze the city of Fribourg.

Fundamental spatial concepts

Example: map of phenomena and map of hazards: maps created at 1:10,000 usable up to the scale
1: 5,000 but not beyond. It is not possible to describe a specific parcel; a much larger scale would be needed.
precise.

The engineer's scale (surveyor)

- Fields of application related to the measurement of the geometric properties of objects (measurements,
cadastre, topography
- Purpose of management and intervention in the territory (legal aspects)
- Emphasis placed on the geometric dimension therefore: large scales (1:100 to 1:10,000) precision and
geometric accuracy

The scale of the geographer

- Areas of application related to phenomena and their interactions in the biosphere

- Purpose of analyzing the distribution of the properties of phenomena (spatial analysis)
- Description and analysis of larger spaces
- Emphasis placed on the thematic dimension therefore: medium and small scales (1:10,000 to
1:1,000,000) thematic precision and accuracy

Georeferencing:

Action of positioning a data point (object, image, map) within a reference system (units of distance,
coordinates) depending on the chosen projection system.

Universal reference system = if it is the same for every place on the planet

Relative reference system = if it only concerns a region or a country

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Choice of related reference system:

- To the extent of the analyzed territory (scale)

- To the national belonging of the territory

Topology

Expressions of spatial relationships between objects,

without metric

- Adjacency relation = What is at

side of?
- Neighborhood - proximity = What is it?
close to?
- Connectivity = What is connected to? (Electrical networks, roads, pipelines...)
- Inclusion = What is included in? (Islets, enclaves)

Measurement of spatial relationships with metric:

- Distance measurement = planar "Euclidean" distance (on the map plane) / also other distances,
as part of accessibility measurement: weighted distance or cost-distance (in time for example)

Units of observation and representation

- Spatial observation (measurement) units

o These are the portions of space on which measurements of properties were made of a
phenomenon
o Point, linear, zonal

- Spatial units of representation (of description)

o These are the portions of space for which we represent the properties of a
phenomenon
o Point, linear, zonal

The spatial units of representation may differ from the spatial units of observation.
spatial entities are also called spatial entities.

Continuous/Discontinuous phenomena

Solar spectrum: the different visible colors are wavelengths that form a continuous sequence.
It is a combination of entities that will cut homogeneous objects (green, blue, red, orange, yellow,
indigo, violet). This division into 7 main colors is arbitrary from a physical point of view.

Analogue and digital

The natural phenomena that surround us are almost all continuous (temperature, atmospheric pressure,
(son). This means that they are quantifiable and transition from one value to another without discontinuity. When one wants to...
to reproduce the values of the phenomenon, we must record them on a medium. When the physical medium can
taking continuous values, we talk about analog recording. Ex: video cassette, vinyl record.

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When the signal can only take on well-defined values, in a limited number, we then speak of discrete signal.
digital. The analog signal is represented by a curve ≠ the digital signal by a histogram. The
Digitization is the transformation of an analog signal into a digital signal.

Precision and accuracy

Precision = similarity of values during repetition of

measures

Accuracy = deviation between the true value and the value(s)

measured

3. Geometric dimension of the map

3.1
Introduction
Objectives of the cartographic projection process:

Process: geometric transformations of the volume of terrestrial reality onto the map plane, allowing:

Locate the places of the Earth on a map.

Report on the shape (contours) and size of spatial objects
Describe the spatial relationships between these places and objects: distance, direction, proximity...

Geography was "made for war", knowing its borders. One of the first maps of the world was
produced around 150 AD by Claudius Ptolemy.

Problematic:

The maps we look at are in 2 dimensions: it's difficult to respect all geometric properties.
originals. One must therefore seek a compromise that minimizes errors in the deemed geometric properties.
important:

Choice of an optimal reference ellipsoid

Choice of a projection and its optimal parameters
This choice depends on the scale of description (global, continental, regional, local...) which influences
the distortions.

Mercator projection: cylindrical projection. There is distortion as one approaches the poles. 1km2 in
The equator is the same on a globe. But 1 km² at the poles on a globe will be 2x or 3x larger on a
cylindrical projection. Deformation.

Airlines are curves, as the shortest distance between two points is always along a great circle.
circle of a globe, and the projection of a great circle (intersection between a sphere and a plane passing through
the center of this sphere) on a map forms a curve.

3.2 Earth surface and geoid

The topographic surface of solid Earth is very irregular: variations of ~8km upwards (Himalayas)
and downwards (oceanic trenches) relative to an ellipsoid that approximates it best.

Geoid: is a representation of the Earth globe corresponding to an equipotential surface of the field of
gravity. Surface on which water does not flow: the ground is 'planed'. This surface serves as a zero of
reference for precise altitude measurements.

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From the geoid to the ellipsoid:

Very small scale <1 :5,000,000 geoid adjustment by a sphere

>1:1,000,000 scale adjustment of the geoid by an ellipsoid

The smaller the scale, the more the description can accommodate significant geometric inaccuracies.

3.3 Ellipsoids
Shape of the ellipsoid Datums (parameters that define the reference ellipsoid)

Length of the semi-major axis (major radius)

Length of the semi-minor axis (small radius)

Position of the center relative to the geoid

Defined by 3 values of difference (three-dimensional difference ∆X ∆Y ∆Z) also known as

of Molodensky constants

Geocentric ellipsoid (global)

To describe the entire surface of the Earth

To determine geographical (or terrestrial) coordinates in terms of latitude/longitude (degrees)
Simplification of the shape of the geoid by an ellipsoid

The center of the ellipsoid coincides with the center of the geoid.

Local ellipsoids

To describe as precisely as possible a portion of the Earth's surface (continent, region, country)
Local adjustment of an ellipsoid to the surface of the geoid

Optimal local adjustment to the geoid

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The position of the center may vary depending on the portion of the geoid to be adjusted.

3.4 Cartographic Projections

Authentic projections:

They are the direct result of the projection of the points of the ellipsoid onto a plane from a center of
projection (cylindrical, conical, azimuthal).

Pseudo-projections :

They are built from mathematical rules (Mollweide, Eckert, Robinson, Goode).

National projections are authentic projections.

The categories of projection:

Conformal projections (preserve angles) preserve local directions + often used in

navigations (e.g. Mercator)

Equivalent projections (respect the surfaces) preserve the ratio between the areas of the objects +
often used in thematic mapping

Equidistant projections (preserve distances) preserve the scale line along

certain lines (local distances) + rarely used due to inaccuracies for long distances. Mn

Three projection surfaces:

Cylindrical (projections: cylindrical, pseudo-cylindrical) Mercator

Conical (projections: conical, pseudo-conical)
Azimuthal (zenithal) (projections: azimuthal, pseudo and retro-azimuthal)

Two types of intersection between projection surface and sphere

Tangent
Secant (allows to describe larger areas)

Three aspects (axis direction) of projection

Normal (direct, equatorial, polar)

Transverse (perpendicular to the axis of the Earth - meridian)
Oblique

Three positions of the projection center (perspective)

Gnomonics (projection center at the center of the Earth + used to determine trajectories)
Stereographic (Projection center on the surface at the antipodes of the central point of the surface)
projection + used for navigation)

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Orthographic (projection center at infinity + field of vision limited to a single hemisphere)

3.5 Coordinate system

A relative (arbitrary) reference frame in the case of the cartographic coordinate system, defined by:

Unit of measurement for the X, Y axes of the cartographic plane (km, m, feet...) région, pays
(blue plan on the image)

An absolute reference frame in the case of the geographic coordinate system:

Unit of measurement of the X and Y axes in degrees: spacing in longitude λ and spacing in
latitude φ with respect to a meridian (Greenwich) + a great circle (equator). Gives
geographic coordinates to create a reference system. (sphere on the image)

3.6 System of
projection and coordinates in
Switzerland
Reference ellipsoid: Bessel 1841

Map coordinate system: Origin at the shifted projection center to encompass the territory
Switzerland in the positive quadrant

Reference points: points on the Earth's surface that have known coordinates and are projected.
Previously, the reference point was the Niton Stone (a glacial erratic from Lake Geneva used as the origin for all altitudes.
the Swiss topographical works).

The great tangent circle passes through Bern (former observatory), Conformal projection: cylindrical with axis
oblique

3.7 Examples of projections

cartographic
Mercator = authentic gnomonic cylindrical projection (see reference)
ppt session 3)

Pseudo-projections:

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4. Localization and positioning

4.1 Introduction
Localization: The action of locating a site/object/position.

(Phenomenon in a certain place. Action of delineating in space.)

Positioning: Action of determining the exact geographic location of an object or a mobile being.

Relative to something else (near, 45 m to the east of) / Absolute

It is said that "the described place is located"
(at coordinates 536…). Locate a site/object, your own position. by outlining the contours of an object
linear or zonal / by defining a route, neighborhood relationships between sites. GPS = Global positioning
System.

to the 'easy' geolocation disrespect for privacy, management activity, control see
espionage, loss of the ability to navigate...

4.2 Coordinate systems

Determination of locations in terms of planar coordinates:

In a polar coordinate system(r,θ):

o Determined by distance measurement instruments r and angle θ

o System used for positioning in the field
o Measurement of relative positioning

– R is the radial coordinate (distance) = distance OP

– The angular coordinate (azimuth) defined from the X-axis (0°) in the direction
counterclockwise
– West the focal point, the origin of the system (pole)
– Determine the site at polar coordinates (r, θ)

In practice: O is the location from which the measurement of P is carried out. Y corresponds to the North.
(often used for navigation)

In a Cartesian coordinate system (x, y):

o Determined by measurement instruments of coordinates X and Y

o System used for positioning on the map
o Absolute positioning measurement

– X is the horizontal coordinate

– And is the vertical coordinate
– What is the origin of the coordinate system?
– P is the site to be determined, with Cartesian coordinates (x, y)

In practice: O is the origin of the chosen reference coordinate system (cartographic coordinates m)

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conversion of coordinate systems (polar and Cartesian coordinate systems (inversely))

– From polar to Cartesian From Cartesian to Polar

o X = r cos (θ)
o Y = r sin(θ) θ = arctan(y/x)

4.3 Positioning Instruments

/localisation
Distance measurement: Ankle strap / Laser or ultrasonic rangefinder (distometer) / Pedometer (odometer)

Measuring angles (direction): Theodolite / compass / protractor (map)

Measurement of coordinates x,y: GNNS (GPS) / Map / table to digitize (paper map) or computer (digitized map)

Localization using a compass:

1. Determine the azimuths (terrain)

a. Aim at an object
b. Turn the dial to align north with the needle
c. Read the value of azimuth (difference with the direction of north in the direction of
watch hands

2. Report on the map

a. With the angle gauge
b. With the compass (Lines of coordinates parallel to the lines of the dial)

3. Localization of the observer (field)

a. Look for 2 to 3 important objects
b. Target objects 1 2 3
c. Determine their azimuth
d. Report them on a map
The point of intersection is the place where the observer is located.
Tip: aim for several objects, if possible with an angle close to 90° between them.
them

4. Measurement of height (terrain)

a. take out the mirror

b. hold the compass sideways at horizontal
c. aiming at the upper part of the object
d. read the angle

5. Attention, magnetism

a. the proximity of objects containing iron, electrical cables or

Important electromagnetic radiation could distort the compass measurement.

Location with a GPS (coordinates):

– The GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems)

– The topographic map (paper) - cartographic coordinate system
– The digitized topographic map - computer + mouse

Reference system:

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Position calculated in geographic coordinates of the World Geodetic System WGS 84

System 1984).

Basic principles:

– The position of each satellite is known thanks to the ephemeris and the almanac.
– The position of the receiver is calculated from the measurement of the distance between the receiver and the
different satellites
– 3 satellites are sufficient for the position of coordinates x y -4esatellite necessary for the
synchronization of the receiver clock.
– Distance satellite - receiver: measurement of the time it takes for the wave to reach the receiver

The disruptions:

– Systematic errors (clock skew)

– Influence of the atmosphere crossing on the signal speed (Ionosphere: influence of radiation
solar / troposphere: influence of humidity and pressure
– Role of topography, buildings 'canyon effect' (Signal echo)
– Role of vegetation (diminution or loss of signal under forest)

Remediation (differential GPS):

– Use of 2 GPS (1 mobile and 1 fixed)

– Real-time correction and post-processing

Ideal measurement configuration:

– Horizontal distribution (if possible in the 4 quadrants)

– Vertical angle (not too high or too low to properly capture the satellites)
– Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
– Index 'Dilution of Precision (DOP)' to know the ideal configuration (1 = ideal / 50 = poor)

Types of receptors:

– General public Professional (geosciences) Military

5. Dimension thématique de la carte

5.1 Graphic Semiotics

Definitions:

Semiotics = a set of rules that allow the use of a graphical system of signs for the
the transmission of information. It is the key to encoding and decoding a graphic document. It is the
grammar of cartographic language.

The cartographic language...

– This is a form of expression in which the elementary graphic signs (point, line, surface) would be
the alphabet, and whose vocabulary (words) would be made up of the arrangement of basic signs according to
visual variables.
– Group together all the graphic means that allow to differentiate, to compare,
to organize and memorize the information transcribed on the card.
– Must be universal, clear, and consistent (adapt graphic coding to the message to be conveyed).

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Elementary graphic signs:

– Point / Trait / Surface

Map figure:

– Combination of basic graphic signs

Graphic implantation:

– Way to apply the symbol on the map: point, linear, zonal

Visual variables:

– Ways to vary graphic signs (7 visual variables)

5.2 Visual variables

ATTENTION: always think about to whom we want to transmit the message / Simplification /

Variables of symbols

QualitativeForms
– Strong visual impact (identification / differentiation)
– For installations (Point / Linear)
– Types of shapes (Geometric / symbolic)
– Optimum for identification 810 forms differences
– Large-scale work (small number), possible to use these symbols

[Link] Size
– Dimensions variables (Longueur, haute, surface, volume)
– For implantations (point, linear, zonal)
– Types of shapes concerned (geometric, symbolic)
– Technical constraints (perceptible size, neighborhood conflicts)

[Link]
– Fundamental colors (red green blue)
– Primary colors (cyan, magenta, yellow)
– Technical constraints (color printing, reproduction cost, print fidelity)
between the screen view and the printed map
– RGB (color profile for computer screens), CMYK (color profile for printers)

4. Qualitative + quantitative value

– Relationship between quantities of color and white / of black and white (Black-White: shades of gray,
Colors: shades
– Expressed in the form of a gradation or a framework (Gradation: number of tones or shades very
grand [continu] / Framework: used in printing processes [offset, screen printing]
– Optimum for identification 6-7 levels / for differentiation: very high number of levels,
used for continuous phenomena

Frame variables

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Graphic layout = mode of distribution and arrangement of basic graphic constituent elements. It is a
Figure where a shape is repeated (point, line, or surface).

[Link] / StructureQualitative
– Shape of the basic constituent element of the framework: simple
(traits, points, squares) or complexes (symbols) | Mode of
distribution of basic constituent elements: regular or
irregular
– Technical aspects: variables used for printing values (tones and shades based on
texture-point)

[Link]
– Grain variation (variation in the size of the constituent element for a
same black/white report / Enlargement or reduction of a texture
structure)
– Technical aspects: difficulty in mastering perception

[Link] Orientation
– Definition: angles made by a linear figure with the vertical / angles generally limited to
4 main directions
– Optimum: limit to the 4 main directions

Qualitative data:

They define scales as either nominal or ordinal.

– The nominal scale consists of a number of categories, the only property of which is that they are
all different from one another (sex, nationality, type of diploma)
– The categories of an ordinal scale, on the other hand, have a structure of order, established in
function of a given criterion (from - to + 'something', opinion + or - favorable, stage of
psychological development, school degree e.g.

Quantitative data:

They refer to interval or ratio variables.

– We have scales within which the comparison of intervals is possible.

– The scale allows not only the comparison of intervals, but also the comparison of
reports.

5.3 Graphic coding

The choice of the visual variable (or combinations of visual variables) to use to represent the
Variation of the properties of one (or several) theme(s) is dictated by: thematic content / the abilities of
information system

The thematic content determines the type and number of variables:

– Data:
o Nominal (categories) = qualitative visual variables
o Ordinals (class) = qualitative visual variables
o Cardinal (intervals, ratios) = quantitative visual variables
– Variable names:
o Thematic univariate map: use of a single variable possible (e.g. monochrome coding)
in shades of gray, in shades of colors

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o Multivariate thematic map: necessity of combining several variables

Capacity of the computer system:

– Software capacity
o Wealth and relevance of shapes, colors, shades, textures
o Possibility to create new shapes, colors, shades, textures
– Display capacity
o Wealth of colors and shades
o Display resolution (size, number of pixels)
– Printing and reproduction capacity
o Monochrome or polychrome
o Resolution, size (A4, A3) and print fidelity

6. Digital capture of geographic information

6.1 Introduction
Dimensions of geo info:

– Geometric dimension (description of the geometry of spatial observation units)

– Thematic dimension (thematic content of spatial units of observations)
– Temporal dimension (evolution of geometry / thematic content. spatial units of observation) Ex. evolution of the
population of 1980 and 2000.

Observation unit:

Portion of space where measurements are taken. Examples: UO buildings, river section,
parcel, municipality...

East :

– Indivisible (not sub-units)

– Spatial entity: UO (observation spatial unit)
– Its spatial limits are physical (building), arbitrary (biotope), or abstract (influence zone).
– It can be linear, zonal or even point-like.

Geographic Information Base (GIB)

The function of a BIC is to produce geographical information on a (+)

themes to map in a computer environment (info
digital).

Reception structure of the 3 dimensions: layers, geometric component,

thematic component.

Depending on the mode of description:

Object mode: vector structure, the unit of observation is the object, segmentation of
space in objects according to a specific vision of reality (or theme).

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Image mode: raster structure, the unit of measurement is the rectangular cell, arbitrary division of space into
mesh, independent of the theme, aggregations of thematically identical and contiguous meshes form the
objects.

BIC in object mode:

‘’ ‘’ is a set of layers of objects describing their geometry and their thematic and/or properties.
temporal. Structuring:

– Each layer has a geometric and thematic component.

– concerns a group of specific objects
– Objects are grouped into layers according to the nature of spatial segmentation.
– Coordinates of each known points/lines/areas and receive an identifier

BIC in image mode:

"" is a set of digital grids, each constituting a thematic layer. Organization:

– Spatial entities are the mesh of the grid (cells)

– The numerical values of the meshes express the thematic property of each mesh for the
theme of the grid
– The digital grid is geo-referenced to define its correspondence on the ground (meta-data).
– The geometric description boils down to defining the resolution of the mesh in the metadata.

6.2 Numeric data entry

geographical
Principles:

– Acquisition is the act of capturing data in digital format.

o The data or digital information, the metadata concerning it
– The acquisition is a critical phase in the cartographic process.
– The diversity of the nature of information leads to diversity of sources.
– Mastering acquisition modes essential for quality assurance
o Input devices, acquisition methodology

Context of digital acquisition:

– Typed information (measurements, analog/digital documents, existing BIC)

– Nature of the spatial distribution (continuous / discrete)
– Type of spatial units to be entered (point, linear, zonal)
– Level of generalization of information (thematic, temporal, and spatial)
– Acquisition instruments (field measurement instruments / digitization instruments)
analog documents

6.3 Manual numeric entry

Geometric primitives:

Geometric element from which a spatial unit is reconstructed (shape, size, spatial relationships):

– Non-topological: individually, without relation point, segment, ligne brisée, polygone

o Point: the point, a single pair of coordinates, 0 dimensions
o Linear: segment/broken line, 1 dimension (e.g. road, hydrographic network)
o Zonal: polygon, 2 dimensions (e.g., plot, lake, municipality, soil unit)

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– Topological: in relation node, chain, surface

Object mode: geometry

1. Simple objects: sequential format

– Spatial units defined by a sequence of points
– Designated by an identifier attached to the centroid
– Each object is described individually in a sequential list.
2. Simple objects: point dictionary format
– A. Spa. Define sequence pts (give a coordinate x,y per point)
– Designated by an ID attached to the centroid
– Lines are repeated if they appear in a new sequence.
3. Complex objects: format in dictionary of points (e.g., zone islands or with hole)
– The thematic content (attributes) pertains to the entirety of the object.
– Complex zones are defined by a series of geometric units (polygons).

Object mode: thematic

The thematic component of the BIC consists of a data table.

– Objects related to the theme thematic table by set (layers) of objects
– Thèmes, sous-thèmes = colonnes du tableau
– UO = rows of the table
– Link between geometric and thematic components and each layer of the BIC ensured by the ID of the UO

Image mode: geometry

1. Geom. An image is fully defined in a header file.

– Meta-info: mesh size, georeference, thematic component, mode and date of acquisition

Image mode: thematic

1. A numerical grid by theme or sub-themes (BIC layers)

Each cell corresponds to a portion of space in reality.
3. The UO = surface (area)
4. Global numerical values of the phenomenon on the mesh surface (properties, attributes)
5. Difficulty in assigning a unique property assign a unique property (value) for the surface
from the cell

7. Reading thematic maps

7.1 Introduction
1. Reading thematic maps:
a. Decoding process of the graphic message (content = thematic, geometric, temporal)
b. Interpretation of the content carried out by the reader, based on their objectives + expertise
2. The purposes of map reading:
a. Répondre aux questions (quoi, où, quand, comment, pourquoi)
b. Explorer (inventory, extraction, location - trying to find out how many cities, rivers there are
etc.)
c. Formulate hypotheses for further analyses
d. Discover evolution scenarios

7.2 Approach to reading maps

1. Global Approach: overall vision - map as a whole

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a.
Thématique- quoi (titre légende)/ géométrique – où (coordonnées carte, échelle) / temporel –
when (dynamic date) / spatial - how (spatial units of description)
2. Analytical approach: detailed vision
a. Theme - properties / Geometric - objects (real dimension of meshes) / temporal - state,
evolution / spatial - spatial distribution (better understanding the distribution of low areas
temperatures for example)
3. Formulating hypotheses: questions, interpretation, identification of influencing factors
Exploration and validation:
The validation of the relevance of these hypotheses is limited by this mono-thematic map.
Multithematic analysis, overlay multiple maps.

7.3 Multithematic maps

Visual analysis highlights:
o Connection between different thematic properties of the same places + space
o Spatial arrangement of a theme based on the properties of other themes
Visual linking is limited by the graphical capabilities of the multi-thematic map:
o 3-4 themes
o Readability of the map
o Ability to integrate the numerous graphic symbols (1/ theme)

Topographic map:

Large scale - represents the relief and land use.

Relief (described by):

o Altitude: by the contour lines and the points of extreme altitude
o General morphology: shading
o Particular forms of the terrain (bounding slopes, dolines, gravel pits)
o Other relief properties are visually derived (slopes, slope orientation, profiles)
topographical)
Land use (includes):
o Rail networks, road networks, pedestrian networks
o Vegetation (forests, vineyards, orchards...)
o Buildings, sports fields, cemeteries
o Hydrography (sources, rivers, lakes, marshes...)

The topographic profile (intersection between the topographic surface and a line that would pass through the map)
allows

To identify landform shapes

To measure distances and elevation changes
To deduce slope forces according to an orientation

Topography ≠ cartography

Topography = science that allows the measurement + the representation on a plan or a map of forms and details
visible on the ground. Goal: determine the position and altitude of a point geometric dimensions of the map:
occupation territory + relief

Cartography = making maps, concern for the graphic readability of the themes presented.

Geomorphological map

She describes the shapes of the landscape in order to understand its genesis.

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Description of shapes (embankment, hollow, basin...)

Description of processes (Accumulation, erosion, alteration...)
Description of morphogenesis (glacial, gravitational...)
Description of lithology = nature of the substrate (sedimentary rocks, magmatic)

Geological map

It describes the substrate (rocky or loose = moraine deposits, silt)

Types of rocks that make up the bedrock

Surface geological formations
Map of tectonic accidents (normal faults, thrusts...)
Mapping of sources (karst, captured, uncaptured)
Representation of other point elements (boreholes, erratic blocks)

7.4 Multithematic maps

interactives
The BIC enables the interactive production of multi-thematic maps.

Choice of layers (themes) to represent based on hypotheses (analyst)

Each layer can be activated or deactivated during the analysis
This approach replaces the overlay analysis of maps.
It is necessary to have a computerized cartographic environment + BIC
Facilitated access with online mapping kiosks

8. Mapping of discontinuous distributions

8.1 Formatting of the BD

cartographic
STEP 1

Formatting: involves conditioning digital information to make it compliant with the requirements of
mapping software.

Selection of useful information layers

– Select the relevant layers (objects + data tables)
– Distinguish the layers of properties (geometric component + thematic e.g. municipalities of the canton) and the
dressing layers (geometric component, e.g. roads and important localities)

2. Importing the information into the software

– Check compatibility (geometric: SHP | thematic: DBF)

3. Verification of the links between the geometric and thematic components

The link between the geometric description (ID = unique numerical or textual code, e.g., 1700) of objects and their
Thematic properties (IDs listed in the field of the table) in the table are ensured by the identifier (ID).

8.2 Digital processing of

the information
STEP 2

Digital processing involves preparing digital information for mapping.

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Indicator: a variable aimed at measuring or assessing a state or an evolution

1. Production of relevant indicators expressing the aspect of the phenomenon to be mapped.

o Production of an indicator (index) expressing a difference (e.g. evolution of the population between
1960 and 1990) in relation to an average + a report (e.g. % active population)

Ranking of values to be coded graphically

The purpose of the ranking is to adapt the diversity of numerical properties to the cartographic message to be produced.
Necessary adaptation physiological reasons (perception, 15 signs) + summarize measured diversity of
properties (producing a synthetic and targeted graphic information)

The ranking of numerical data is related to the richness of information (levels of measurement)

1. Nominal level
. the ranking is only necessary if the categories are too many or if a
grouping is desirable
2. Ordinal level
. Ranking is only necessary if the classes are too numerous or if a grouping
is desirable
3. Cardinal level
. The ranking is essential because the diversity of values measured is very large.

The classification process

Define the number of classes (categories) to be produced
a. Statistical or subjective criteria
b. Limits of perception and the computer system
Define the limits of the class intervals
a. Several ranking methods available (independent, statistical, a priori)

The number of classes and their breakdown must be defined according to the type of graphic representation planned.

Ranking methods (in intervals)

– Independent (neutral)
o Cutting into regular intervals
– Statistics
o At regular intervals
o In units of dispersion around the central tendency
. Units of standard deviation around the mean
. Quantile units around the median (middle value)
o In intervals of probabilities of the occurrence of values
– A priori (comparatives)
o Predefined intervals by a reference breakdown (e.g. age groups)

8.3 Choice of representation

cartographic
STEP 3

Dictated by criteria of message clarity, depending on the nature of the objects (point, linear, zonal)

8.4 Graphic coding of properties

STEP 4

1. Thematic content
– Level of measurement (nominal, ordinal, cardinal)

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– Number of variables [Univariate (monochrome coding) / Multivariate (polychrome coding) | Chap. 6 Variables
visual

2. Computer system capabilities

See previous chapters. Software capacity for display, printing, and reproduction.

8.5 Card dressing

STEP 5

1. Keys for describing informational content

They constitute the information needed to read and interpret the cartographic message in its dimension.
thematic and spatial

– Clés thématiques(Titre, légende, sources)

– Geometric keys (Scale, coordinates, projection)

2. Reading guidelines
Allow interpreting the spatial relationships between the mapped objects, as well as with other themes
explicit or implicit to the reader.

– Graphical references [Layers of point, linear, and zonal objects (e.g. political boundaries)]
– Textual references [Toponymy (name of localities)]

9. Mapping of continuous distributions

9.1 Introduction
Issue
2 steps to map from a sample observation:

spatial interpolation
1) Infer the properties throughout the entire considered space
2) Process the information digitally Cartographic processing

9.2 Spatial interpolation

Spatial interpolation: an inference process that assesses the properties of locations based on those
measured.

Principles
1) Distribution continues (spatially)
2) Representative sample (spatially)
3) Behavior of the known phenomenon (spatial dependence)

Spatial continuity
To be spatially interpolable, the phenomenon must be distributed continuously in space.

Examples of interpolable variables: altitude, soil moisture, temperature...

Properties: a phenomenon is said to be continuous if the variable that describes it takes a value at every point of
the study space
Partially random and autocorrelated behavior

For partially continuous or discontinuous variables, there are possible interpolation approaches.

Partially continuous variables: Cut the study area into zones respecting the lines of
discontinuity / Interpolate by zone

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Discontinuous variables: Interpolate by creating areas of closer proximity to each of them.

observation points / Assign to the area of closest proximity to the measured property at its point

Concept of regionalization
Regionalized phenomenon a phenomenon is regionalized if it unfolds in a spatial domain D and there
shows a certain structure
Regionalized variables (RV) Variable that designates the value at point D of a characteristic of
regionalized phenomenon.
3 components: trend, autocorrelation, totally random

Spatial representativeness of the sample

The sample of measurements must be representative both thematically and spatially of the behavior of the
phenomenon

Thematically Cover the real amplitude of the variations of the phenomenon

Spatially Describe all the places in the region to be addressed / Describe with sufficient density of points
measuring / Describe the behavior of the phenomenon beyond the area to be treated (to avoid extrapolation, effect
of the border)

Avoid extrapolation!
To interpolate reasonably at the boundary of the area to be processed, the sample must contain measurement points.
beyond this area.

Acquisition of measurements: it is during this stage that it is essential to collect measurement points from
in such a way that the area to be treated is entirely located within the interpolable region.

Variography = to understand spatial behavior

Spatial dependence (spatial autocorrelation) Check the link between properties in space and
their proximity
Characteristics of this spatial dependency: determine the persistence of spatial correlation =
scope/ Determine the function of this dependence = model/ Characterize the isotropic properties
anisotropies of the phenomenon using directional variograms

Variability analysis
Variogram: scatter diagram of squared differences
The domain D is the set of the domain

Experimental variogram The initial variogram is transformed into a histogram of deviations = delta H

Components of the variogram

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9.3 Interpolation Methods

Choose the most relevant interpolation method based on the sample. This choice is made by a
quality analysis, spatial behavior of the variable.

2 families of methods
Globally all measurement points are taken into account simultaneously (Regressions, surface of
trend)
o Properties: linear law, polynomial, easy to implement, describes the trend of values
o Application: regression applied to the 2 dimensions of space is known by the name
Trend Surface Model

Locales only the measurement points included in a window centered on the point to be interpolated are taken into account.
account (local estimators)
o « Plus proche voisin » : découpage de l’espace en polygones de Thiessen (la valeur de chaque
zone is that of the closest point) Application: for phenomena whose continuity
spatial is not verified or verifiable
o Triangle network: dividing space into triangles whose vertices are the points.
measured; we graduate each segment of the triangle and draw isolines.
o Weighted distance: only the measurement points located within a defined neighborhood of the point to
estimates are taken into account; we calculate the average of these points weighted by their distance
o Kriging: based on a weighting function derived from the variogram (resembles the
weighted average); provides a linear estimation based on expectation and variance.

9.4 Cartographic representation

Types of cartographic representations: in plan view (isoline, values, gray tones) / in perspective view (in
filet, draping=isolines + classes + perspective).

Mapping approach: Produce a regular grid of points by interpolation / Choose a type of

mapping representation / Process the information to produce the appropriate graphic coding

10. Example of complex thematic representation: geological maps

10.1 Introduction
Reminder chapter 2

10.2 Geological Atlas of Switzerland

1 : 25,000
Geological maps take longer to make than cartographic maps. 140 maps of Switzerland completed today.
(In 2014: 133 / Total of 220 sheets). Geological map has 2 numbers: e.g. Gruyère 115 for the geological atlas
and 1225 for the topographic atlas. A geological map has an explanatory note.

Geological map: provides information about the surface layers of the Earth's crust. The formations
Geological formations are classified according to their composition (lithology), their age (stratigraphy), and their position.
structural (tectonic). These formations are mapped onto a topographic background. Provides information about the
forages + water sources (empty blue circle = uncaptured source / blue square = captured) + history of a region.

10.3 Production of geological maps

Precise field report (measurements & observations). The geologist determines the rocks and formations.
superficial outcrops (measurement criteria + orientation). The geologist interprets the non-
outcropping at the surface taking into account the morphology of the terrain.

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Collection of existing data:

– Master's thesis work (maps already created with varying degrees of detail & precision)
– Private offices (geological and geotechnical studies)
– Cantonal services (environment, waters, planning)
– Archive documents (confederation, cantons)

Setting up at 1:25,000 then digitizing the map: two possible ways

Digitization in a GIS (Toolmap, ArcGIS)
– Correct topological geometry
– Spatial relationship between each object
– Data deposited in databases

Scanning in graphic design software (Adobe Illustrator)

– Optimal readability
– Beautiful representation
– Visual hierarchy of data

10.4 Geological Data Model

The National Geological Service has converted existing raster data into vector data. (Paper sheets
≠ homogeneous)

Geological objects are divided into 8 themes (each with several classes): Rock Bodies,
Geomorphology, Tectonics, Spatial Orientation Measurements, Parameters and Modeling, Anthropogenic
Features, Hydrogeology, Local Additional Information.

10.5 Derivative Products

Geothermal maps / Natural hazard maps / Geotourism maps / Hydrogeological maps

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