Retroactive interference;
Interference with retention of information already present in memory by new information
being entered into memory.
Example ; if learning how to operate new computer program causes you to forget how to operate
one previously learned, then it is known as Retroactive Interference.
Proactive Interference;
Previously learned information present in long term memory interferes with information
you are learning at present.
Example; for the first few months of the new year, you kept accidentally writing the previous
year’s date because it is the most practiced memory.
Intelligence;
Individual’s ablity to understand comples ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment,
to learn from experience, to engage in various frms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by
careful thoughts.
Gardeners theory of Multiple intelligence;
Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, which challenges traditional views of
intelligence by suggesting that studying a wider range of people, including those with
exceptional talents or impairments, offers a better understanding of human abilities.
Gardner argued that focusing solely on "average" intelligence was limiting.
He proposed studying individuals at the extremes, such as geniuses, experts, and those with
specific gifts.
He suggested that abilities like those shown by Olympic athletes might indicate special types of
intelligence beyond traditional verbal and mathematical skills.
His theory recognizes multiple components of intelligence, including musical and bodily-
kinesthetic intelligence.
The eight intelligences Gardner identified are:
1. Visual-spatial
2. Linguistic-verbal
3. Logical-mathematical
4. Body-kinesthetic
5. Musical
6. Interpersonal
7. Intrapersonal
8. Naturalistic
People who are strong in visual- spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These
individuals are often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.
Research suggests that visual-spatial abilities play an important role in reading and arithmetic
skills, as well as in overall academic achievement
People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when
writing and speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing
information, and reading.
People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing
patterns, and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think conceptually about
numbers, relationships, and patterns.
Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body movement,
performing actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have
excellent hand-eye coordination and dexterity.
People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and
sounds. They have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition
and performance.
Sternberg’s triarchic theory;
Triarchic theory;
A theory suggesting that there are three basic forms of intelligence; componential, experiential,
and contextual.
Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence, which proposes three distinct types of
intelligence.
Componential (analytical) intelligence: Involves critical and analytical thinking abilities,
typically excelling on standard academic tests. Persons high on this dimension usually excel on
standard tests pf academic potential amd make excellent students.
Experiential (creative) intelligence: Emphasizes insight, formulating new ideas, and combining
unrelated facts, often seen in scientific geniuses. Person high on this dimension excel at
combining unrelated ideas and create new concepts.
Contextual intelligence; intelligence useful in solving everyday problems. Persons high on it
are intelligent in adaptive and practical sense.
Carl Jung, The collective unconscious;
Carl Jung believed that the human mind, which he called the psyche, is made up of different
layers that all work together to shape a person's personality, behavior, and emotional life. He
explained that the psyche includes every part of our thoughts, memories, feelings, and even
things we are not consciously aware of. To Jung, understanding the entire psyche is essential for
living a balanced and meaningful life.
Jung said that the conscious mind is the part we are aware of at any moment. It contains our
current thoughts, feelings, and everything we know we are experiencing. This conscious identity
is guided by what he called the ego, which helps us organize our thoughts and make everyday
decisions. The ego is not the whole personality, it is just the part that faces the outer world.
Behind the conscious mind is the personal unconscious, which stores all the memories,
experiences, and emotions that we have forgotten or pushed away because they may be painful,
embarrassing, or uncomfortable. Even though we may not think about these things, they still
influence our behavior, dreams, fears, desires, and reactions.
Deeper than the personal unconscious is a layer that Jung considered one of his most important
discoveries: the collective unconscious. This is a universal layer of the mind shared by all
humans, regardless of culture, time period, or background. The collective unconscious contains
archetypes, which are ancient, universal patterns and images that appear in myths, religions,
dreams, and stories around the world. These archetypes are not specific memories; instead, they
are deep patterns that shape how humans understand life.
One major archetype is the Self, which represents the center and whole of a person’s personality.
The Self symbolizes the goal of inner balance and wholeness. Another archetype is the Ego,
which forms our sense of identity and helps us interact with the world. The Shadow is the part of
the psyche that contains qualities we deny or hide, such as anger, jealousy, fear, or even hidden
talents. The Shadow is not evil; it is simply the side of ourselves we do not want to show or
admit.
Jung also described the Persona, which is the "mask" or social role we show to others. The
Persona helps us behave appropriately in society, but it can become a problem when we identify
with it too strongly and forget who we truly are. Another pair of archetypes is the Anima and
Animus. According to Jung, every man has an inner feminine side (Anima), which includes
qualities like emotion, intuition, and sensitivity. Every woman has an inner masculine side
(Animus), which includes traits such as logic, strength, and assertiveness. Jung believed that a
healthy personality requires recognizing and balancing these inner opposites.
Overall, Jung’s theory presents a rich and detailed picture of the human mind. It explains how
both the conscious and unconscious work together, how universal archetypes shape human
experience, how symbols and dreams reveal inner truths, and how each person can move toward
wholeness through the process of individuation.