sieyh it Jt ee ene ee ee Se OR Mee Cree. gy. B UNIT 1: WHAT IS LANGUAGE? UNIQUE FEATURES OF ——_HUMAN LaNGuaGE Structure 1.0 Introduction LL Objectives 1.2. Definitions of Language 13° The Origin of Language 1.4 Funetions of Language 15 Knowing a Language 1.6 The Uniqueness of Human Language 17 Let Us Sum Up 18 Answers 1.9 Suggested Reading 1.0 INTRODUCTION “Man is man through language alone”, said Humboldt. ‘What then is this unique facility called language, which sets us apart from other creatures, helps us respond to our environment and above all, enables us to reflect on the very essence of our being? Language is that system by which sounds and ‘meanings are related (Fromkin and Rodman, 1974). Language communication and suman needs are unquestionably linked, Human beings have various needs “ individual, social, emotional, economic, political and cultural “ and itis to fulfill these that human beings need language. Even the youngest infant expresses its needs which are primarily biological to begin with. As the infant grows and hishher needs become more complex, 0 does its language. From the stage of whimpering in discomfort or gurgling with pleasure, the individual reaches the stage where s/he stats reflecting on his/her needs. Language does not exist in a vacuum, It serves and is moulded by other systems in the human mind. Since language is used to convey ideas, its structure and function ‘must reflect these ideas. Besides, since it exists within a complex social and cultural system, itis moulded by these aspects as wel. Language pervades and is pervaded by all aspects of our lives.of Language a ee 1.1 OBJECTIVES er a a fou should be able to: ; Afler going through this unit, y ae ven by various lingui ‘© critically analyze the definitions of language given by vari ‘© understand the funetions of language; ‘© discuss various theories ofthe origins of language; imal i sspecially anim: © distinguish language from other forms of communication, esP* ‘communication, Se 1.2 DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE __ innumerable Languages tem, which duet its ange of applications, has prompted innumeraS definitions. Some of these focus on the general concept of en tures like more specific aspects of ‘a language’ and yet others on its more formal feature ‘oi phonology, grammar and semantics. Then there are also those which emphasize ‘4 its range of functions or those which stress the differences between Tanguage an Othe forms of human and animal communication. The range of definitions given below amply illustrates this point. ‘Language is a purely human and non-instinctive ‘method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.” (B. Sapir, 1911) “A language i a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which the members of a society interact in terms of their total culture.” (G Trager, 1949) ‘A language isa set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed of finite set of elements.’ (N. Chomsky, 1957) SOCCCOCTCOCETEREOEEOHDO OAH RARORRR)4 GLELYLELELEEEEELELULLY 1 yo Cheek your progress 1 1 You've read th 1e various definitions of language. Flanguage. Now, write your own definition of }2. What are the fun: 1 Functor least two fet ns of language which emerge from these definitions? Name at spy halal dpe aks lath Jolie: eo ee 1.3 THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE Language seems to bea highly developed form of animal signaling, But how and ‘when did we start to talk? Numerous philosophers have speculated ‘on the origin of language, resulting in the extensive collection of theories that we have with ws. is a question which even today attracts much attention, nthe erly part ofthe eighteenth century, theories of te origin of language Proposed that language was of Divine Origin. According to them man was ested and = he aaaeant of his eration, speech was provided to him a a dvine git. In the Biba) Mon about the Garden of Een, Go created Adam and sess simatancou for God spoke with Adam and Adam answered him = the language they used was Hebrew. Other cultures too propagated the divine origin of language “ the Egyptians, for example, considered themselves the oldest civilization ‘and therefore theirs was the Griginal language, passed down through !heit god-ancestor. One oftheir rulers ~ Poammetichus is said to have tied an experiment test this theory. He had two babies from an ordinary family raised in isolation ‘When they were two years old, the babies abruptly said “becos”, whic in Phryet ‘means “bread”, Psammetichus pelieved that this proved his theory that Phrygian was the original language. In the latter part ofthe eighteenth century, speciation on the origin of language moved fom the realm of divine origin nd fey to what is called the “organic pase” ‘eth the publication of Johann Gotttied von Herder’s ‘On the Origin of Language? (1772), According to him, language was °° smiperfec to have been a divine gsNature of Language “Language”, soning came abou ivough human being’s own groping effos towards TSSSOO eonbryo he argued, “was the result ofan instintive impulse, simi pressing to be bor.” his Descent of Darwin argued against any distinctly “human” quality of! ee etween the Man (1871, he propose that teri nly a dference of SF ing lengugeof man andthe ries of animals, According oh, human SAB, from a mote primitive fom, probably expressions of emotions FO" ST fling of conemprsaecompanied by the action of puffing air ou rose TT or mouth and his makes sounds such 5 ‘poh or “ish”. Darwin's ory ‘Max Maller, disagreed with him and scomfully named this the igin of language. ind and meaning received vocal ‘Maller proposed what he called the Ding-Dong theory of the a Acconding to his theory there was a mystic correlation between su Pmt man had an nsinctby which evr impression fom Without ENE sega Wet, ike every object whi sree by = 4c PORT particular sound, so also a human being’s mind gives off 2 Leste ‘own theory. the various impacts the world makes upon it. Muller later rejected his Muller proposed another theory called the Bow-Wow theory — also referred to as apa vords were imitative Onomatopoetic or Eehoie theory. The theory suggests that first w a of natural sounds ~ the cry of bind, the cal of animals, et. Although Muller rejecte {his theory too; i is true that virtually every language has some percentage of echoic ‘words in its vocabulary — ‘babble’, ‘ratte’, ‘ipple’,etc., are some English examples. An argument against this has been that we hear and imitate the sounds of nature within the limitations of ou ist language. A popular example ofthis cultural influence i he roosters rowing ~in English itis cock-a-doodle-doo; in French, coquerico; jn Russian, kukuikus; in German, kikeriki, etc. fonmulate a credible theory ofthe origin of language, it. 8, it is important t the psychological development of early man, ence atone Anthropologists believe that the factors that led t rs to the de i Homo sapiens, also led to the. development of ee ee taisesg f language — ‘humans additional visual Tange, their eyes became steoane a Posture gave fff of ASIII IS OVOP OLE rererecey: fofDEL ECE ) aaa y . ly f a a » oY: \y oe » of “oe fase wa ea wnat language iCosek, oer. progress 2 Uigue feats ten lanes? ete Witte moe ete ry chitin re er 2 Su Suggest three reasons why people tlk. Can you thin you think of any onomatopoeic sounds in your mother tongue? List them 1.4 FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE vewhat of a puzzle but why language evolved n says, it began because human beings 1d for efficient cooperation a satisfactory How language began continues to be som seems clearer. Perhaps as Jean Aitchison needed to cooperate in order to survive, an ‘mode of communication was required. [Language is a complex phenomenon with multiple functions. Varios linguists have tied to understand and elucidate the funtion of language. Roman Jakobson defined six primary functions of language according to which en effective act of verbal Communication can be described. These functions are: The referential function: information which was one of the primary ‘This function is primarily used to convey situations, objects and even. reasons that language was discovered. Deserptions of ‘mental states come under this, ‘The expressive function: 1s ofthe speaker or writer and its also meant der. This form of communication can also {my mobile phone falls into bucket of ‘This flunction reports feelings or attitude to evoke feelings in the listener or re happen when we are alone. For example, i10 ean 'm likely to say to myself? Pr when we sig! rao ha ik ty omy ral Satta cate pean omething of great beauty “Wow, isn’t that beautiful!” The directive fanction: the purpose of i is usually used for eee once”, “Please shut the window.” The phatic function: be observed {isin ng fhe sa of soci intacton Thi ineton an Pe OS in greetings “Hi, how are you” and casual discussions about the hot these days The poetic function: as well This function focuses on the message for its own sake, and is used in poetry 48 in slogans. This isan aesthetic function of language. The metalingual function: This fmetion is used to ak about language itself as we are doing inthis unit However itis vey rare for any piece of discourse to serve only one function, unless Kinet SPetalized and restictive piece of discourse; most ordinary Kinds of discourse are mixed. ‘Check your progress 3 “Ttlooks like it may rain, doesn’t it” i Tiredeyes, Aching feet, The commuters scramble Fora seat, Don'ttouch my papers + India has, ‘long tation of grassroots bilingualism, The picture looks so prety! W The place looked neat ‘and clean, aff aff JALIIIIIGIVG IIT Do eeeecersee1.5 KNOWING A LANGUAGE communicate ‘When people come together they use language, We 8 tanguage t0 eonrsenghs and ideas arsongst our fends and eqVANSA eis this oe stinguish humans fom animals. But We a0 reflect on state poses te basis of Or ames ASS se of language iS 2 fancov and natural hat we py no mre anion it than we d0t0 OU treathing or to the beating of our hears. We tke Tanguage too much for granted a it while ty and imagine what out i woul be ee without anesase sa el otimpossible! What tens ae? thing called lanewae® eareocs it mean when we say we “know” a angus? facility whieh this superior Normally when we say we know al re know a language, it implies that we ean speak to and BE wperstood by people who know that language, TM ‘means that we are able tO rotor corn sounds, which renal nero shaving acetain meaning sinc ll of us know at eat one lngnage and are ale OO, st without making mach Se conscious effort, why do we need to discuss? nal this isthe objective of the unit to make us aware thatthe ability f0 cat) he simplest conversation requires a profound knowledge ofthe lang a pic speakers are unaware: A speaker can produce the most complica ae ees witout being aware of Principles and rules tat gover ter Fommation so whats this spoific knowledge possessed YY speakers of language? In ther sponds, what does knowledge of langnaBe mean? 1.5.1 Knowledge of the Sound System When we say we know a languages ply that we know the sounds which are apart ofthat language, and bY rset ich sounds are not. Tis ict PPO quite ‘ear when speakers ofa particular anguage pronounce words fom another language. Geer of Bengali Assamese of OF/8 5 0% ‘able to articulate the Uistnetion between the sounds “P” nd “v’. When they say the word Vivek it mie The very fact that they mispronowsye it reveals they are ‘comes out as “bib ‘unconscious ofthis fact They are vpreto dsingsish when they encour the aking those words, but are unable (2 amen form or when another PETSON is “route the distinction prope shemselves, rtisnot enough that speakers of 8 anguage know only the permissible sounds of their language ty also Possess & pnconscious knowledge of the permissible ound combinations and aso the OS™ ‘When a speaker of one languas® ‘encounters 2 WO combination than ea hich s parmissblein bishet BNE the will inall probability rispronounce that word. 1.5.2 Knowledge of the Meaning of Words se raw wt sli ound OMENS ‘Knowing language aso means BAL} ‘and sound patterns, 18 jmportant to Know apart from a knowledge of He sounds: u12 ae a is obvi ity certain meanings. Tis incon sues spy cera mings Ts te pe ne hear “foreign” or unknown language speakers seem language prod ible to us, but the 5 luces are incomprehensibl oe ona each other. This then also tells us that the relation between ‘meaning it signifies is arbitrary. ‘sound and the form mbine them f0 in which they cor the same. 8. sounds but the way in w! ation is nck Many engages hare tht they esign tn even ail i a jase tw bom ma HX we Be it refers to a “female dog’. This shows very clearly how s ular concept will be ittached to it is arbitre ary. The corollary to this is that a ae Tepresented in different languages by different sound sequc ests the meaning There are some words in most languages whose Ie vault Saar teas eae ~ these are referred to as onomatopoeie or echoie words. pee ee Gceomac to imitate sounds of nature. But even here there may be avari wise eclve fected 00 language. The most well known example is the cock’s crow earlier on in this unit. Hindi, the Sometimes particular endings suggest a certain meaning. For ample in fending suggests a diminutive or feminine aspect — bb, adli, etc. But even if person knows all the correct sound combinations and their ceed rag language, one could not say that she “knows” the language Knowledge o 2 fanguage also means that you know how to combine words to form phrases an creativity of language, ie. the ability to “create” which one has never uttered before. 1.5.3 Knowledge of Appropriate Social Context Just being able to create n 'h, One must know exactly Where they can be used ie, one must have a Knowledge of the appropriate contexts for their use. Tis isthe social aspect oflanguage. To communicate effectively, we should know what kind of rz . INS Of What is said yy ‘meaning potentials to the contexts also, He A language then, consists of the Sounds, words a , , ind possib ty that we know a language, we mean that we kn ara Pa JSS SSISIIIIOOCT Toe eevee egescesessTE “ef RH a at. ce ee Check your progress 4 pee - 1. Can knowledge of a language exis patented of angueg exist withoutknowledge of te cn onten 2a Makea list ofthe sounds in yourmother tongue, 2c Doyouhavea problem in pronouncing words with the sounds of 2 (b) above, Ifyou do, then why do you think ithappens? cre 1.6 THE UNIQUENESS OF HUMAN LANGUAGE Itis language which more than anything else distinguishes human beings from animals, We frequently refer to language as being unique to humans. What then is human about human language and how is it different from the forms of ‘communication produced by other forms of life? a jong14 Nature of Language as dc yaa on somple? creasing © tem. inne cl cr and ane ens 8 hips ly complex mes lationsh information content calls for a eas complex ‘social eae eis generally accepted and understood that In ‘Now the nature and scope of this communica y other species also iesion of a signal 2S the participants jen man} If we view language only as a communication system, then al transmis communicate. Communication involves active intention: ied well feedback from the receiver, creating a closed loop i iment of com ‘Language, spoken and written, is a human being’s chief inst - 2 Sher forms of but itis not the only one. Gestures have a similar role, as a thing or omar Symbolism, Giving ower to someone has a meaning, paca ee isa isa device to make known ones’ affiliation and loyalties. Thus, vrily with spoken pervasive manifestation with many forms. Our concern here is ee Sy emacative to see how it is related to other language, but to understand it we need t behaviour 1.6.1 Animal Communication Itis evident that different animal species show different forms of vocal and oa behaviour. One of the most remarkable species is the bee, which is capable ms ‘communicating with great accuracy the location of nectar by carrying out a. series of ‘motions which have been described as a ‘dance’. The bee moves in alternate directions around a constant axis, so as to describe an approximate figure 8. The axis of ‘Movement indicates the direction of the find, the speed of the circling is related to the distance, and the agitation of the animal reflects the abundance of the find. While the dance is being executed near the hive, the other worker bees form a circle around the dancer, After witnessing the movements for a few moments, the other bees male off in the prope direction and fly the correct distance before descending om to the flowers Another form of bee communication oceurs when part of a colo; swarm. The bees assemble at a conve ny is ready to ‘enient point outside the hive, apparently long lifferent directions, form of vocal behavi in sound imitation as Pethaps itis merely an exceptional m fo many animal sp Ou is imitative, There are far as conseryati 100 of the g, nifestation ofthe echoic psi is is concey ecies. Imitation Usually occurs wy; Y, common, it| oe a. an A: y EL “tt eect Ie In contrast the phonetic ability ofthe lower species, human beings are definitelY superior. Many animal species pronounce only vowels and even here perhaps only one or few particular ones; some manage one consonant, especialy frcatives oF ‘outgoing breath. The ability to produce stops or plosives is far less frequent and the ‘combination of stoppage and vibration of the vocal cords may be entirely lacking. ‘The human being’s superiority consists in being able to manage a great mumber of resonant, fricatives and stop consonants; to make click and inbreathed sounds as well as oubreathed ones; and above all to produce complex combinations and sequences of varied sounds. Their abilities go far beyond the demands of any single language sis evident from the richness of exclamatory and imitative sounds in all languages with phonetics that go beyond the language in question, a8 well as, the ability to lear foreign words, 1.6.2. Instinctive-Intuitive vs. Formal Communication ‘Communication is normally an intentional and planned activity. However, at times we ‘say things we do not mean to say, or our tone of voice tels things we had planned not to reveal. If we trace communication back to the lower animals we find that there can be such a thing as instinctive communication. If one member of a species experiences pain, fear or any other emotion because ofa physical stimulus and utters cry, makes a grimace, or moves away, and if this reaction evokes an analogous or related emotions in other individuals, an act of communication has taken place, whether or not any conscious intention has been involved. Ifthe reaction pattern follows a strict inborn tendency, it is instinctive. Ifthe tendency is generalized and is subject to conditioning by experience, it may be better described as intuitive. In so far as a code language has been developed, requiring considerable learning and involving many arbitrary associations between the sound and its meanings, we are dealing with a formal system, Human spoken languages constitute such codes. ‘Thus, two main levels of communication can be distinguished: the instintive-intutive found in all animals, and the formal, conventional or arbitrary found only in the human species. The formal systems of communication include gestures, language and pictorial symbols. Art forms are complex behaviour system involving features of intuitive and formal communication. The formal system of communication may have evolved out ofthe intuitive, and very primitive at forms may have played a role in the process. 1.6.3 Features of Human Communication ‘There have been a number of attempts to determine the defining properties of human ‘and different lists of features can be found by different writers. We have ‘described how they are manifested in human language. ‘human language and Tanguage, taken six core features and ‘We have also shown how these features are uniquely a part of unlikely to be found in the communication systems of other creatures Arbitrariness: sunication, there is frequently a connection between the signals and the an animal who wishes to warn an opponent may Je, will arch its back, spit and appear In animal comm messages sent. For instance, simulate an attacking attitude. A cat, for examp! ready to pounce. Tue eas of oan Iang¥9816 Natare of Language so yc ts animal it symbol Jn human language, the reverse stu, and th linguist form and its meaning. Thats, the symbols use there ino conection between the word DOG ad the fou itcan equally be called katta (Hindi), chien (French), ‘The need for earning: « very litle : communication is ‘ Itappears thatthe ole played by ‘Teaming’ in animal commun NY which ‘Their language is more or less genetically inbuilt For example, BECTAE ATT ¢ is used by the bes to convey information about the course OF MOREE A ai Same in bee colonies all over the world. And since, we do NOK SAP th the over the world to be holding international conferences, We hypothesis that they are born with the language. id up in isolation, Another interesting thing to notice i that ifa human child is brought up in at are ‘the doesnot acquire language, whereas birds reared in isolation sing Sone oa recognizable. Human beings require a long exposure to language in or sean X This doesnot mean that human language is totaly conditioned by the environment According to Chomsky, human beings are bom with an innate ‘language nee > > > , 7 ) 3 ) 2 Sus \ggest at least three properties which are very rare or absent in animal creativity and arbitrariness as isused to describe @ 3. What is meant by the term: property of human language? 4a The property which relates to the fact thata language mustbe acquired or leamed! byeach new generation is 19Nature of Language 4b The term used to describe the ability of human language users to discuss topics which are remote in space and time is, 1.7_ LET US SUM UP {In this unit we have seen that one of the mos distinctive characteristics which set us ‘part from other life forms is the highly evolved mode of communication which we call language. Philosophers and scientists have long debated on the nature and use of language and even today there is no consensus as to when exactly human beings started to speak. Several principles operat, atthe evel of leaming of language. These involve knowledge of the sound system, and that of the meaning of words and appropriate social context of use, jhe bave attempted to place in a proper perspective the origin of language and looked into the reasons that make human language unique 1.8 ANSWERS A heey Check your progress 1 2 _ Interaction with other members of society; expression. of emotions. Check your progress 2 1 Bow-Wow theory 2 Some of the reasons why people talk are: - to convey information ~to communicate feelings and emotions ~ social small-talk: example ‘How are you?" SPPPPPOPOGHPHS SSH OS OPPS L SSH S SS SasWoebitbbUbbbEbesebreilillllyi yyy, Check your progress 3 i Phatic function Poetic fimction Directive fimetion ‘iv Metalingual fanction/Referential function v Expressive function Xi Referential fiction Check your progress 4 1 No, social contextis very important for effective communication. For example, YOU will behave formally with yourboss inthe oftce, but much more informally ata picnic Check your progress 5 2 Arbitrariness, displacement and duality of structure. 3. Read 1.6.3 forthe answer. 4a. The property which relates to the fact thata language must be acquired or learned by each new generation is need for learning. 4b The term used to describe the ability of human language users to discuss topics which are remote in space and time is displacement. 1.9 SUGGESTED READING 103. Lingulstics: An Introduction to Language and Akmajian, Adrian. et al. 20 a Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited. Communication. New Delhi: a