Water, Solutions and Solubility

Water is the most abundant chemical substance in the world. It covers 70% of the
surface of the earth. It occurs in form of water vapor in the atmosphere and this may collect
as cloud and later come down to the earth in form of rain. It is also present below the earth.

Water is a transparent and nearly colorless chemical substance that is the main constituent of
Earth’s streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of most living organisms. Its chemical
formula is H2O, meaning that its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms, that
are connected by covalent bonds. Water strictly refers to the liquid state of that substance that
prevails at standard ambient temperature and pressure; but it often refers also to its solid state
(ice) or its gaseous state (steam or water vapor). It also occurs in nature as snow, glaciers, ice
packs and icebergs, clouds, fog, dew, aquifers, and atmospheric humidity.

Water is very important to all kinds of plants and animals even to humans. Not only is
water used all over the world in vast quantities for drinking purposes, but it is used in even
greater quantities for washing, bleaching, dyeing, cooking, raising steam to drive engines and
turbines to generate electricity and as a solvent in industrial processes. Water plays an
important role in the world economy. Approximately 70% of the freshwater used by humans
goes to agriculture. Fishing in salt and fresh water bodies is a major source of food for many
parts of the world. Much of long-distance trade of commodities (such as oil and natural gas)
and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, and canals.
Large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and
homes. Water is a good solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances; as such it is widely
used in industrial processes, and in cooking and washing. Water is also central to many sports
and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing,
sport fishing, and diving.

Water Cycle

The water of the great oceans, seas, rivers and lakes evaporates into the atmosphere as
water vapor. This water vapor condenses on reaching the cooler part of the atmosphere to
form clouds and eventually falls to the earth as rain. A lot of the rain goes into the rivers,
seas, oceans as surface water while the remaining part sinks into the ground. The
underground water eventually finds its way into the rivers which in turn flow into the seas
and oceans from where it again evaporates into the atmosphere.

Water on Earth moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation and
transpiration (evapo-transpiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching
the sea. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land. Large
amounts of water are also chemically combined or adsorbed in hydrated minerals.

The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle or the H2O cycle, describes the
continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The mass of
water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the
major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending
on a wide range of climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as
from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes of
evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In
doing so, the water goes through different phases: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor.

The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. For
instance, when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the
environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat
exchanges influence climate.

The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with
freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also
involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through processes including
erosion and sedimentation. The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life
and ecosystems on the planet.

Types of Natural Water

There are four major types of natural water

1. Rain Water – This is the purest form of natural water because it is formed as a result
of the condensation of water vapour in the atmosphere. Rain water contains small
impurities like gases such as CO2 from the air and also dust particles present in the air.
Dissolved oxygen and nitrogen will always be present in rain water. After electric
storms during which oxygen and nitrogen react to form oxides of nitrogen, rain water
may actually be an extremely dilute solution of trioxonitrate(V) acid.
2. River Water – Rivers are used extensively for sewage disposal. River water contains a
lot of dissolved air, mineral salts, bacteria and organic remains. It is dirty and needs to
be purified especially before drinking.
3. Spring Water – Spring water is purer than River water. It contains a considerable
amount of mineral salts but very little suspended impurities such a s dust and bacteria.
It is good for drinking.
4. Sea Water – This is the most impure form of natural water because impure water is
consistently flowing into it and at the same time, purer water is constantly leaving it
 through evaporation. The main inorganic metallic salt present in sea water is Sodium
chloride, but Magnesium, Calcium and Potassium salts are also present. Of all the
solid impurities in sea water, the most important ones are Calcium tetraoxosulphate
(vi) and Calcium hydorgen trioxocarbonate (iv).

Purification of Water

Purification is the act of removing pollutants from water so that it is fit for drinking. This can
be achieved by a number of methods including filtration, sedimentation, chlorination and
other chemical treatments.

1. Filtration – It is one of the methods to purify water but the water might not be safe
enough for drinking, as it can still contain germs. Filtration would make the water
clearer and can be done in the laboratory in small quantity.
Experiment:

a. Using a Filter Paper – Get some water from a nearby river. Put the filter paper like
a cone inside the funnel and place the funnel on the conical flask.

b. Using a Sand Filter – Instead of the filter paper, carefully arrange some large
pieces of gravel in the bottom of the funnel. Arrange the layer of smaller pieces of
gravel on top of these and then a layer of fine sand.

2. Sedimentation – For drinking purposes the clear water obtained by filtration is not
pure enough and particles which are not retained by the filter beds have to be
removed. This is done by adding powdered potash alum. This will coagulate all the
particles to settle at the bottom of the container.
3. Chlorination – The clear water from the above method may still contain harmful
bacteria and other microbes. These germs can be killed by the boiling water if we
need small quantity of water. For a large scale water supply, chlorine is added to the
water to kill harmful germs.

Physical Properties of Pure Water

1. It freezes at 0oC
2. It is clear and colourless
3. It has no smell and has insipid taste
4. It boils at 100oC, when the barometer stands at 760mm and pure will boil away
completely with no change in temperature
5. It is neutral to litmus paper
6. Its maximum density is 1gcm-3 at 4oC.

Chemical Properties of Pure Water

1. Water is known as a universal solvent because most substances dissolve in it to some

extent forming aqueous solution.
 2. Oxides of non metals dissolve in water to form acid solutions while oxides of metals
which are soluble in water form alkaline solution
3. Water reacts with many metals to liberate hydrogen. Some metals like Potassium,
Sodium and Calcium react with cold water while metals like Magnesium, Aluminium,
Zinc and Iron react with Steam.
4. Electrical conductivity and electrolysis – Pure water has a low electrical conductivity,
which increases with the dissolution of a small amount of ionic material such as
common salt. Liquid water can be split into the elements hydrogen and oxygen by
passing an electric current through it — a process called electrolysis. The
decomposition requires more energy input than the heat released by the inverse
process (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).
5. Polarity and Hydrogen Bonding – Since the water molecule is not linear and the
oxygen atom has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen atoms, it is a polar
molecule, with an electrical dipole moment: the oxygen atom carries a slight negative
charge, whereas the hydrogen atoms are slightly positive. Water is a good polar
solvent, that dissoves many salts and hydrophilic organic molecules such as sugars
and simple alcohols such as ethanol. Most acids dissolve in water to yield the
corresponding anions. Many substances in living organisms, such as proteins, DNA
and polysaccharides, are dissolved in water. Water also dissolves many gases, such as
oxygen and carbon dioxide — the latter giving the fizz of carbonated beverages,
sparkling wines and beers. On the other hand, many organic substances (such as fats
and oils and alkanes) are hydrophobic, that is, insoluble in water. Many inorganic
substances are insoluble too, including most metal oxides, sulfides, and silicates.
Because of its polarity, a molecule of water in the liquid or solid state can form up to
four hydrogen bonds with neighboring molecules. These bonds are the cause of
water’s high surface tension and capillary forces. The capillary action refers to the
tendency of water to move up a narrow tube against the force of gravity. This property
is relied upon by all vascular plants, such as trees.

 Action of Potassium on Water – Pour cold water into a large trough. Use tongs to take
a piece of potassium out of the bottle, cut a small piece of about 2mm with a knife
and drop it into the water and watch the reaction.

Observation: The potassium melts into a silvery ball and darts about in the water. A
gas (hydrogen) is given off. The metal becomes smaller as it reacts with water to form
potassium hydroxide.

2K(s) +2H2O → 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)

The solution turns red litmus paper to blue

 Action of Sodium on Water – Sodium reacts with water in a similar way as potassium
except that it is less reactive and the hydrogen does not usually burn. The solution
remaining in the trough is Sodium hydroxide

2Na(s) + H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

  Action of Calcium on Water – Calcium is a denser and harder metal than either
Sodium or Potassium. When a piece of Calcium is dropped into a dish of water, it
sinks because it is denser than water. Effervescence occurs and the gas evolved is
collected. The gas gives a positive test for hydrogen when it is tested with a lighted
sprint. The solution remaining turns red litmus paper to blue. The solution is cloudy
but on filtering the filtrate becomes clear. When carbon(iv)oxide is bubbled through
this clear solution, it turns milky due ti the formation of insoluble calcium
trioxocarbonate(iv).

Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2(aq) {Calcium Hydroxide} + H2(g)

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) → CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

 Action of Magnesium on Water – Magnesium reacts with steam to produce hydrogen

and forms oxides. This gas can be detected by applying a flame to the tube of gas
collected. A characteristic ‘pop’ sound will be heard. The white ash remaining pis
magnesium oxide.

Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) {magnesium oxide} + H2(g)

 Action of Water on Iron – Iron does not attack ordinary water but readily attacks
excess steam at red heat What will be remaining in the tube is black residue which is
an iron oxide called tri-iron tetraoxide.

3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) → Fe3O4(s) {tri-iron tetraoxide} + 4H(g)

 Action of Water on Non-metals – Non-metals like chlorine, oxygen and silicon also
react with water. Chlorine acts on water to form a mixture of two acids: oxochlorate(i)
acid and hydrochloric acid.

Cl(aq) + H2O(l) ↔ HOCl(aq) {Hypochloric acid}+ HCl(aq) {Hydrochloric acid}

Benefits/Uses of Water

1. Water is used as a universal solvent in most chemical processes

2. Water is an essential component for the effective functioning of our body.
Approximately 50 to 70% of our body mass is made up of water, including skin,
tissues, cells and the organs.
3. Water staves off dehydration. Dehydration is a condition in which the body doesn’t
have enough water to support the vital functions.
4. Water removes toxins and waste products from the body thereby cleansing it.
5. Water is required to process all the nutrients from the food we eat and carry the
assimilated nutrients to the cells by circulating through the lymphatic system.
6. Lack of water in the body can cause constipation, asthma, allergy, hypertension,
migraine and many other health problems.
7. Water is used in dams to supply electricity (hydroelectric power)
 8. Water is used for agricultural processes and farming activities e.g. Irrigation,
Watering of Ornamental plants, gardening and Fishery and Livestock activities.
9. Water is life and it is essential for all domestic activities such as drinking, washing,
cooking, bathing, cleaning etc
10. Animals and plants also need water to survive
11. Water is used for transportation of both humans and cargoes in riverine areas
12. Water is used for sporting and recreational activities. e.g Boating, Swimming, Beach
{Elegushi, Bar Beach}
13. Water is used in industrial processes e.g Mining, Manufacturing of Products,
Petroleum Refineries.

TYPES OF WATER
There are two types of water namely; Hard water and Soft water.

HARD WATER

Hard water will not form lather readily with soap. It contains a number of dissolved
salts, the most important being calcium tetraoxosulphate(vi), magnesium tetraoxosulphate(vi)
and calcium hydrogentrioxocarbonate(iv).

When soap is added to hard water, the dissolve salts in the water will immediately react with
the soap molecules. The insoluble calcium and magnesium salts form an unpleasant scum
which sticks to clothes and is difficult to rinse away. Detergents are not affected by hard
water because they form calcium and magnesium salts which are soluble in water.

ORIGIN OF HARD WATER

Water acquires hardness when it dissolves gypsum, CaSO 4.2H2O, or limestone,

CaCO3, from soil over which it flows. Gypsum is sparingly soluble in water but limestone is
not. However, water which contains carbon(iv) oxide is capable of dissolving small quantities
of limestone. The reaction is as follows:

CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

Types of hard water

There are two types of hard water: temporarily hard water and permanently hard water.

TEMPORARY HARDNESS

Temporary hardness is due to the presence of calcium hydrogen carbonate

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) and magnesium hydrogen carbonate Mg(HCO3)2(aq).
Both calcium hydrogen carbonate and magnesium hydrogen carbonate decompose when
heated. The original insoluble carbonate is reformed. This happens when water is boiled. The
precipitation reactions are as follows:
The presence of the metal cations makes the water hard. Hardness can be removed by boiling
or by the addition of lime (calcium hydroxide). Boiling promotes the formation of carbonate
from the bicarbonate and precipitates calcium carbonate out of solution, leaving water that is
softer upon cooling. The original insoluble carbonate is reformed.

Temporary hardness is complex, because its concentration is a function of the concentration

of carbonates in relation to their reaction with calcium in magnesium. Temporary hardness is
easy to remove by boiling or through precipitation with lime (calcium hydroxide). In contrast,
permanent hardness contains ions that cannot be eliminated by boiling.

Effects of temporary hardness of water

1. Furring of kettles and boilers: when a kettle or boiler has been used to boil
temporarily hard water for some time, the inner surface becomes coated with a white
fur-like layer. This layer is due to the gradual deposition of calcium trioxocarbonate
(iv), from the decomposition of calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv).
2. Stalactites and Stalagmites: these are pillars of limestone found in hot caves. When
hard water flows temporarily over the top of a cave, drops of water tend to drip
through cracks in its roof. The calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv) in the water
then becomes decomposed by the heat inside the cave, leaving deposits of caco3 on
the roof and floor of the cave. The CsaCO3 forming from the roof is called stalactite
and the one forming from the floor of the cave is called stalagmite. They grow
towards each other to form one solid pillar.

PERMANENT HARDNESS

Permanent hardness of water can only be removed by using chemicals. It is caused by the
presence of calcium or magnesium ions in the form of soluble chloride or
tetraoxosulphate(vi).

REMOVAL OF PERMANENT HARDNESS

1. DISTILLATION: Both temporary and permanent hardness can be removed by

DISTILLATION because all the ions are left behind when the water vapour distills.
2. ADDITION OF WASHING SODA: This removed the calcium and Magnesium
trioxocarbonate (iv) respectively.
Na2CO3 + CaSo4 CaCo3 + Na2SO4
Na2CO3+MgSO4 MgCO3+Na2SO4
3. ADDITION OF CAUSTIC SODA: The CAUSTIC SODA removed and Magnesium
ions from the water as insoluble calcium and magnesium hydroxide respectively.
 4. PERMUTIT METHOD: This method is used for softening watering large scale. It is
an ion-exchange resin. Permitting is a complex substance of hydrated sodium
aluminium trioxosilicate(iv) commonly known as sodium zeolite. When the hard
water is passed through the resin, the sodium ions will go into solution while the
unwanted calcium and magnesium ion to take their place in the complex salt.

When the premier becomes exhausted, it can be regenerated by pouring a concentrated

solution of common salt through the resin.

Sodium chloride + calcium zeolite sodium zeolite + calcium

Advantages of hard water

1. Hard water tastes better than soft water because of the dissolved minerals in it.
2. The calcium salt present in hard water when taken in by animals, help to build strong
teeth and bones.
3. Hard water helps animals such as snails’ bandstand to make their shells.
4. Hard water can be supplied lead pipes as it does not dissolve lead, but soft water
dissolves lead, if supplied in lead.

Disadvantages of hard water

1. It wastes soap.
2. Hard water causes furring of kettles and boilers.
3. Hard water cannot be used in tanning and dyeing.

WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution is a big problem in the present day world. It strengthens aquatic life
and changes water bodies into unsightly, foul smelling [Link] also affect our health because
of the harmful substance that accumulate in aquatic animals, one of our main source of food.

The main cause of death water pollution is the indiscriminate dumping of solid and liquid
wastes into water bodies.

POLLUTANT
The common pollutants are as follows:
 Refuse and sewage
 Industrial and agricultural wastes
 Crude oil spills
REFUSE AND SEWAGE
Many towns and villages are located near rivers for convenience since transport is
easy and water supply is available. As a result, it is a common practice to dump refuse
and human waste into the river for easy disposal. Nowadays, many homes in town
have water closet (WC) lavatories. The human waste and liquid from these lavatories
are emptied either into septic tank or sewers. In many cases, sewers empty the wastes
directly into rivers and seas without any treatment.
The waste or sewage is mostly organic matter. It is broken down into simple
substances by decomposers, mainly bacteria. In the process, the bacteria use up the
dissolved oxygen. Too much sewage in a water body causes an increase in the
 bacterial population. This reduces the level of oxygen in the water. If the oxygen level
falls too much, the aquatic organism start to die and eventually the water body
becomes clogged up and foul -smelling .Water polluted by sewage contains many
diseases -causing organisms.
INDUSTRIAL AND AGRICULTURAL WASTES
Many factories empty there chemical wastes directly into rivers and seas without
converting them into harmless substances. These chemicals include acids, alkalis,
mercury compounds, organic solvents and detergents.
Fertilizers and insecticides used in agriculture are washed by rain into the soil and
eventually reach the lakes, ponds and rivers.
Many harmful chemical wastes like detergents and insecticides are non -
biodegradable, i.e. they cannot be broken down into harmless compounds by living
organisms. They remain in water and harm aquatic life. Mercury compounds tend to
accumulate in the body of aquatic organisms like fish. If we eat such fish regularly,
the mercury accumulates in our bodies and eventually leads to food poisoning.
THERMAL POLLUTION
Several industries like oil refineries, steel mills and breweries use water for cooling.
Usually, water from a nearby or lakes is pumped in and used for the cooling process.
The resulting warm water is then emptied back into the river or lake. This causes an
increase in the temperature of the water. As a result, less oxygen dissolves in it. Many
types of fishes cannot live under such conditions and start to die.
CRUDE OIL SPILLS
Accidents and carelessness in oil rigs and tankers cause crude oil spills mainly in the
coastal waters. The oil floats on water and kills most of the marine life in the affected
area .The oil is then washed up on the beach, temporarily preventing people from
using the water and the beach for recreation.

CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION

Some methods of controlling water pollution are as follows:
1. Refuse should be buried or burnt in an incinerator with built device to prevent air
pollution.
2. Sewage should be processed, treated and converted to useful fertilizers in sewage
plants.
3. Chemical wastes should be converted to harmless biodegradable substances before
being dumped in the sea.
4. Safety measures must be implemented to prevent crude oil spills.
5. Strict laws must be passed to control water pollution by individuals and companies.

Test for Water

When a few drops of water are added to:
 White anhydrous copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI), it turns blue
 Blue cobalt (II) chloride, it turns pink.
However, these two tests are not specific for water. They only indicate the presence of
water. Any aqueous solution or substance containing water will give a positive test for water.
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) CuSO4.5H2O(s)
CoCl 2(s) + 6H2O(l) CoCl2.6H2O(s)
 SOLUTIONS
A solution is formed when a solid, such as crystals of copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI),
dissolves in a liquid, such as water, to produce a homogenous mixture. The solid is called the
solute and the liquid the solvent.
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O (l) CuSO4.5H2O(s)
A solution is a uniform or homogenous mixture of two or more substances. A solute is a
dissolved substance which may be solid, liquid or gas. A solvent is a substance (usually a
liquid, although it may be a solid or a gas) which dissolves a solute.

Water as a Universal Solvent

The most common solvent in nature is water. It is usually referred to as the universal solvent.
Water molecule has a structure which is polar in nature, i.e. one side of the molecule is
positively charged while the other side is negatively charged.

As a result of this polar structure, water is an excellent solvent for electrical dilutes such
as mineral salts, mineral acids and bases. These are mainly inorganic substances. All covalent
compounds which contain the hydroxyl group which dissolve easily in water. Examples are
organic solids like sugar, and organic liquids like alkanol and propane -1,2,3-troll (glycerol).

Besides these, all gases can dissolve in water to some extent. Gases which ionize in
solution, or which react with water are found to be very soluble, e.g. ammonia, hydrogen
chloride and nitrogen (IV) oxide. Other gases like sulphur (IV) oxide, carbon (IV) oxide and
chlorine, which ionize only slightly, are found to be fairly soluble in water. Gases which do
not ionize at all in water are only sparingly soluble. Examples of such gases are oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon II oxide. In general, the solubilities of gases decrease with an
increase in the temperature.

ORGANIC SOLVENTS

Water and other polar solvents dissolve most inorganic substances, but only a few organic
ones. Organic substances dissolve readily in solvents like kerosene, petrol, benzene and
turpentine. These are only known as organic or non-polar solvents and are obtained from
crude oil.

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS

Familiar solutions are those where the solutes are dissolved in a liquid solvent. When the
liquid is water, the solution is known as Aqueous Solution.

In some cases, the apparent solution of a solution of a solute in a solvent is accompanied

by a chemical reaction. This is often known as a chemical solution. For example, when
magnesium appears to dissolve in dilute hydrochloric acid, what actually happens is that the
magnesium attacks the acid to form magnesium chloride, which dissolves in the water
present.

Solution Solute Solvent (state)

Brine Sodium chloride (s) Water (l)

Anti-freeze Alkanol (l) Water (l)

Soda water Carbon (IV) oxide (g) Water (l)

Brass Zinc (s) Copper (s)

Air Mainly oxygen (g) Nitrogen (g)

USES OF SOLVENTS

Solvents play an important role in our everyday life. Some common uses of solvents are
listed below;

1. In laundries and dry cleaners.

2. Fat, oil and grease stains are removed by solvents like petrol, kerosene or ammonia
solution;
3. Paint stains are removed by turpentine;
4. Coffee or tea stains are removed by a solution of borax in water.
3. For the general cleaning of household or office furniture and equipment,
4. Petrol is used to remove stains of wax, grease, fat and oil.
4. In the manufacture of perfumes, aromatic (i.e. sweet smelling) oils are dissolved in
ethanol.
5. In the laboratory, chlorophyll (the green pigment in leaves) is extracted by
boiling the leaves in ethanol.
6. The vulcanizer's solution for mending punctures in the inner tubes of car
tyres is prepared by dissolving rubber and certain other substances like benzene.
7. The iodine solution for dressing wounds in the dispensary is prepared by dissolving
solid iodine in ethanol.
8. Turpentine is used to mix water-proof paints for the painting of walls.
9. Water, being the universal solvent, serves as a very suitable medium for most
chemical reactions especially in living systems.

COLLOIDS

True solutions and colloidal solutions

When solute particles dissolve such that they are able to get in between the solvent
particles, the resultant homogeneous mixture is called true solution. The solute particles,
which are simple molecules or ions, are too small to be seen by the naked eye and are called
crystalloids. Examples of true solutions are aqueous solutions of sodium chloride and copper
(ii) tetraoxosulphate(vi).

In false solutions or colloidal solutions, the individual solute particles are larger
than the particles of the true solution, but not large enough to be seen by the naked eye. Some
examples of colloids are starch and albumen.

Types of colloids

In a colloidal false solution, the liquid solvent is more appropriately known as the dispersion
medium while the solid solute particles constitute the dispersed substance. As in the case of
solutions, in colloids too, the dispersion medium and dispersed substance may be a solid, a
liquid or a gas. The most important colloid is protoplasm, the living matter in cells.

Sols and gels: The most common type of colloid is one where solid particles are dispersed
in liquid medium. Such solid-liquid colloidal systems are called sols. Most sols can solidify
under certain conditions to form gels. Examples of sols are starch, glue, agar, jelly, gelatin
and clay.

Aerosols: These are systems where liquid particles are dispersed in a gas. Fog and smoke
are aerosols. Examples of aerosols are the sprays of insecticides and deodorant from aerosol
cans.

Emulsion: In this colloidal system, a liquid is dispersed in another liquid. Examples of

emulsions are milk, hair cream and cod liver oil emulsion. Butter is a solid emulsion, i.e,
liquid particles are dispersed in a solid medium. The cleaning action of soap and detergents is
due to their ability to form emulsions.

Coagulation of colloids

The dispersed particles in colloids cannot be separated from the medium by filtration.
However, they can be precipitated or coagulated by the addition of solutions containing metal
ions. This is what happens at the mouth of a river, when river water and sea water mix. The
ions in the sea water precipitate the mud particles in the river water. As a result, mud settles
at the mouth of a river to form a delta.

Suspensions
In a suspension, the dispersed particle can be seen with the naked eyes. If the
suspension is left undisturbed, the dispersed particles eventually settle down, leaving the
solvent or dispersion medium clear.

A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture of undissolved particle in a given medium. The

particles are usually large enough to be seen without the aid of an instrument and they
eventually settle down if left standing.

SOLUBILITY
Most substances are soluble in water, some are more soluble than the others, i.e. their
solubilities differ. Solubility is a means of comparing the extent to which different solutes can
dissolve in a particular solvent at a temperature.

SATURATED AND UNSATURATED SOLUTION

A given volume of water can only dissolve a certain amount of salt in it at room
temperature. If more salt is added to such a solution, the salt will remain undissolved. Such a
salt solution is said to be saturated.

A saturated solution of a solute at a particular temperature is one which contains as

much solute as it can dissolve at that temperature in the presence of undissolved solute
particles.

The composition of a standard solution is not affected by the presence of excess dilute
particles. An unsaturated solution can continue to dissolve more solutes, if added, until the
solution becomes saturated. The concentration of a saturated solution varies with the solute,
the solvent, and with the temperature.

In a saturated solution, the dissolved solutes tell the undissolved solutes are in equilibrium at
a particular temperature. Any change in the temperature will disturb this equilibrium and the
system must later to counter the change. Since the solution of many substances is
accompanied by heat solution, an increase in temperature will result in a corresponding
increase in the solubility of these substances. In the other hand, when a saturated solution is
cooled, excess solute will crystallize out, i.e. solubility generally decreases with a decrease in
the temperature.

SUPERSATURATED SOLUTIONS

A supersaturated solution is one which contains more of the solutes than it can normally
hold at that temperature.

Supersaturated solutions are unstable and the excess solutes will separate out of the solution
is disturbed slightly by shaking or if a tiny crystal of the solutes or even a dust particle is
dropped into it. Even scratches inside the container can serve as centres of crystallization for
the excess solute.

DETERMINATION OF SOLUBILITY

The solubility of a solute in a solvent at a particular temperature is the maximum

amount of the solute in miles or grams that will saturate 1 dm³ of the solvent at that
temperature.

The method of determining the solubility of a given solute involves two stages:

Preparing a standard solution of the given solute at the specified temperature and taking a
known mass of the saturated solution and heating it to dryness so that the exact mass of the
solvent and the solute in the saturated solution at that temperature can be calculated.

SOLUBILITY GRAPHS OR CURVES

If the solubility of a solute in a given solvent is plotted against their respective temperatures,
a solubility graph or curve showing the effect of temperature on the solubility of the
substance will be obtained. For comparing the solubilities of different solutes in a given
solvent, several curves can be plotted on the same axes.

DEDUCTIONS FROM THE SOLUBILITY CURVES

1. Solubilities of potassium trioxochlorate(V) and potassium trioxonitrate (V) increase

very rapidly with increase in temperature.
2. Solubilities of sodium chloride and calcium hydroxide are independent of
temperature.
3. Sodium tetraoxosulphate (VI) shows a solubility curve with a sharp break at 36 0C.
This is because the salt exists in solution as sodium tetraoxosulphate (VI) -
decahydrate, NA2SO4 1OH2O, at temperatures below 360C but gives up its water of
crystallization to become anhydrous at temperatures above 36 0C. This, 360C is
referred to as the transition point. If cooled, a saturated solution of sodium
tetraoxosulphate (VI) will deposit the hydrated crystals, NA2SO4.1OH2O at
temperatures below 360C, and are anhydrous salt, Na2SO4, at temperatures above 360C
4. At all temperatures between 00C and 1000C, calcium hydroxide has the lowest
solubility of the six compounds. It also shows a decrease in solubility at temperature
over 700C.
5. The solubility of potassium chloride increased at a constant rate with the rise in
temperature.

APPLICATION OF SOLUBILITY CURVES

Solubility curves enable pharmacists to determine the amount of solid drugs that must
be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent to give a prescribed drug mixture.

The curves also enable chemists and research workers to determine the most suitable solvents
to be used at various temperatures for the extraction of essential chemicals from various
natural sources.

With the help of solubility curve, a given mixture of solutes can be separated or purified by
fractional crystallization. When a saturated solution of such a mixture is cooled, those
fractions with very low Solubilities will be the first to crystallize out of solution while those
solutes that are still within their limits of solubility will remain in solution.

SOLUBILITY OF GASES

The solubility of most solid solutes increases with a rise in temperature. The solubility of
most common gases, however, decreases with a rise in temperature. Hydrogen chloride gas is
an exception. Gases which do not react with water are only slightly soluble in water. Gases
like ammonia and hydrogen chloride which are very soluble in water form alkali and acid
solutions respectively. Air is sparingly soluble in water.

The solubility of a gas is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas. Aerated drinks are
made by dissolving carbon (IV) oxide under pressure. When an aerated drink can or bottle is
opened, the pressure is released and bubbles of carbon (IV) oxide gas are given off.