1.

2 network models
• ISO –OSI
• TCP/IP
 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Q. What are the tasks required to be performed for

sending a letter ?
Tasks involved in sending a letter
ISO-OSI model
• ISO
• Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational
body dedicated to worldwide agreement on various international standards.
• OSI :
• It is an ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the 1977.
• is an effort to standardize networking.
• Open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture or changing it. i.e. interoperable
• OSI is not protocol but a model / framework for developing protocol standards.
• It divides the network communication process into smaller and simpler
components(modules); thus aiding component development, design and
troubleshooting.

• It provides a means by which changes in functionality in one layer does not require
changes in other layers by Standardizing interfaces. i.e. It standardizes network
components to allow multiple vendor development and support. i.e. It allows different
types of network hardware and software to communicate with each other
(interoperability).
OSI model

• APSTNDP : All people seem to need data processing

• Each layer defines a set of functions distinct from other layers. Implementation is
left to vendors.
• Makes interoperability between other wise incompatible systems.

• Layer 1,2,3 : n/w support layers deals with physical moving of data from one
device to next. Implemented as combination of H/W and S/W. except lowest
physical which is implemented in H/W.

• Layers 5,6,7 : host or user support layers allows interoperability among

unrelated s/w systems. Implemented in S/W

• Layer 4 links the two groups .

The interaction between layers in the OSI model
• In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer n on one machine to
layer n on another machine.
• Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the layer
immediately below it, until the lowest layer is reached.
• Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual communication
occurs.
• In Fig., virtual communication is shown by dotted lines and physical
communication by solid lines.
• Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface. The interface defines
which services the lower layer makes available to the upper one

Q. In telephone system , do the two persons talk directly to each other ?

An exchange in computers using the OSI model
• At each layer a header and possibly trailer is added as data units from upper
layers are moved from upper layers to lower at Tx side
• This is called Encapsulation ( similar to medical capsule) . Where the lower layer
does not know which part is data and which one is header or trailer.
• Headers and trailers are used( interpreted) by corresponding layer in Rx and then
they removed before passing the data to upper layer
Sample list of protocols in layers of various models
Physical layer

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits( in form of signals) from one node to the next.

Here data is converted to signals (electromagnetic) at sender side and

vice versa at receiver side.
Functions of physical layer
defines the electrical and physical specifications for devices
( interface and Tx medium) .This includes the layout of pins, voltages, cable
specifications, encoding(NRZ,RZ etc), modulation , data rate, simplex/duplex, point to
point/ multipoint, topology(bus/star etc)
• Devices working at PL:
NIC,Hubs, repeaters,

• Examples of standards defined for PL

Token ring, FDDI, ITU-T [Link] and IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area
networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4.
Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one node to the next.
Node to node ( hop to hop) delivery of frames

1) A puts physical address of B and sends to B 2) B puts physical address of E & so on

Functions of DLL:
• Framing : converts bits received from NL into frames
• Physical addressing: in case of multipoint , receiver’s address is added by sender in
frame
• Flow control: if Rx speed is less than TX , Tx is told to slow down
• Error control : by adding error detection & correction ( for damaged, duplicate or lost
frames)
in case of lost or damaged frames :Tx retransmits frames in case of lost or damaged or
Rx corrects damaged frame at its own end.
in case of duplicate frames: Rx discards them, keeps only one.
• Access control: in case of common link between many devices, access to link can be
given to only one device at a time
DLL is split in two sub layers : LLC and MAC
Eg of protocols which have functions of DLL
ARCnet
ATM
Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP)
Controller Area Network (CAN)
Econet
Ethernet
Ethernet Automatic Protection Switching (EAPS)
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
Frame Relay
High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC)
IEEE 802.2
IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN
Link Access Procedures, D channel (LAPD)
LocalTalk
Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS)
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) (obsolete)
Spanning tree protocol
StarLan
Token ring
and most forms of serial communication.
Devices working at DLL

NIC switch
Network layer

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from
the source host(node) to the destination host(node) connected in different
networks
 Source-to-destination delivery

NL of B makes decision based on routing table to send packet to E

Q.
Why are both Network and Data link layers needed?

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to the
destination host connected different networks,

Whereas DLL oversees delivery of frame between two systems on same n/w.

So if two systems are connected by single link ,then NL is not required in either systems.
Functions of NL:

• Logical addressing: ( DLL uses physical address, but across different networks a
logical address is required) which is called Internet Protocol (IP) address
• Routing: protocols to decide to which path a packet has to be sent so that it
reaches RX
• Connection model: connection-oriented and connectionless communication
Devices having NL

Routers gateways
Transport layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of entire message from one process/application to another.
• A process is an application program running on a host. In destination there can be no. of
applications running . For this each process must be given an address called port
address.
• NL does not recognize any relationship between packets of same message , but TL can .
So TL at Rx combines all packets of same message and gives it to intended
application/process
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

Analogy :
A letter to one particular person , out of many persons living in same
house
Functions of Transport layer
• Segmentation and reassembly: Segmentation of message at TX and reassembly at
Rx.
• Connection control : connection oriented or connectionless.
• Flow control : similar to DLL but here it is end to end. In DLL it is hop to hop ( node to
node)
• Error control: similar to DLL but here it is process to process than hop to hop as in
DLL. To make sure entire message arrives at Rx w/o error( loss, duplication, damage)

Eg of protocols used at TL
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
The Session Layer
Functions ( services ) of session layer

• controls the dialogues (connections) between computers.

• It establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and
remote application.
• Authentication( user name , password)
• full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation,
• Permissions ( read only , modify , delete )
• Session restoration (checkpointing and recovery)
It allows information of different streams, perhaps originating from different sources,
to be properly combined or synchronized.(eg IDM)
 Eg of Session Layer protocols
• ADSP, AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol
• ASP, AppleTalk Session Protocol
• H.245, Call Control Protocol for Multimedia Communication
• ISO-SP, OSI Session Layer Protocol (X.225, ISO 8327)
• iSNS, Internet Storage Name Service
• L2F, Layer 2 Forwarding Protocol
• L2TP, Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol
• NetBIOS, Network Basic Input Output System
• PAP, Password Authentication Protocol
• PPTP, Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol
• RPC, Remote Procedure Call Protocol
• RTCP, Real-time Transport Control Protocol
• SMPP, Short Message Peer-to-Peer
• SCP, Secure Copy Protocol
• SSH, Secure Shell
• ZIP, Zone Information Protocol
• SDP, Sockets Direct Protocol
Presentation Layer services
• Translation :for different syntax and semantics. It takes care of syntactical
differences in data representation within the end systems ( source and destination
host). Eg.
1) the conversion of an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded file
2) issues of string representation - whether they use the Pascal method (an integer
length field followed by the specified amount of bytes) or the C/C++ method (null-
terminated strings, i.e. “this is a string\0").
• Encryption : for privacy
• Compression : for data transfer efficiency
Presentation Layer Protocol Examples

• AFP, Apple Filing Protocol

• ASCII, American Standard Code for Information Interchange
• EBCDIC, Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
• ICA, Independent Computing Architecture, the Citrix system core protocol
• LPP, Lightweight Presentation Protocol
• NCP, NetWare Core Protocol
• NDR, Network Data Representation
• RDP, Remote Desktop Protocol
• XDR, eXternal Data Representation
• X.25 PAD, Packet Assembler/Disassembler Protocol
Application Layer
• This layer interacts with software applications that implement a
communicating component.
Such as email, remote file access & transfer, shared database mgmt etc.
Eg when using MS word if you need online help , or to open link
embedded in document , its communication component takes over.
Application layer

X.400, Message Handling Service Protocol( for e mails)

X.500, Directory Access Protocol (DAP) ( to support x.400)
FTAM, File Transfer Access and Management
Eg of application layer protocols
• 9P, Plan 9 from Bell Labs distributed file system protocol
• AFP, Apple Filing Protocol
• APPC, Advanced Program-to-Program Communication
• AMQP, Advanced Message Queuing Protocol
• BitTorrent
• Atom Publishing Protocol
• BOOTP, Bootstrap Protocol
• CFDP, Coherent File Distribution Protocol
• DDS, Data Distribution Service
• DHCP, Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
• DeviceNet
• DNS, Domain Name System (Service) Protocol
• eDonkey
• ENRP, Endpoint Handlespace Redundancy Protocol
• FastTrack (KaZaa, Grokster, iMesh)
• Finger, User Information Protocol
• Freenet
• FTAM, File Transfer Access and Management
• FTP, File Transfer Protocol
• Gopher, Gopher protocol
• HL7, Health Level Seven
• HTTP, HyperText Transfer Protocol
• H.323, Packet-Based Multimedia Communications System
• IMAP, IMAP4, Internet Message Access Protocol (version 4)
• IRCP, Internet Relay Chat Protocol
• LDAP, Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
• LPD, Line Printer Daemon Protocol
• MIME (S-MIME), Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions and Secure MIME
• Modbus
• Netconf
• NFS, Network File System
• NIS, Network Information Service
• NNTP, Network News Transfer Protocol
• NTCIP, National Transportation Communications for Intelligent Transportation System Protocol
• NTP, Network Time Protocol
• OSCAR, AOL Instant Messenger Protocol
• PNRP, Peer Name Resolution Protocol
• POP, POP3, Post Office Protocol (version 3)
• RDP, Remote Desktop Protocol
• Rlogin, Remote Login in UNIX Systems
• RPC, Remote Procedure Call
• RTP, Real-time Transport Protocol
• RTPS, Real Time Publish Subscribe
• RTSP, Real Time Streaming Protocol
• SAP, Session Announcement Protocol
• SDP, Session Description Protocol
• SIP, Session Initiation Protocol
• SLP, Service Location Protocol
• SMB, Server Message Block
• SMTP, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
• SNMP, Simple Network Management Protocol
• SNTP, Simple Network Time Protocol
• SSH, Secure Shell
• SSMS, Secure SMS Messaging Protocol
• TCAP, Transaction Capabilities Application Part
• TDS, Tabular Data Stream
• TELNET, Terminal Emulation Protocol of TCP/IP
• TFTP, Trivial File Transfer Protocol
• TSP, Time Stamp Protocol
• VTP, Virtual Terminal Protocol
• Waka, an HTTP replacement protocol
• Whois (and RWhois), Remote Directory Access Protocol
• WebDAV
• X.400, Message Handling Service Protocol( for e mails)
• X.500, Directory Access Protocol (DAP) ( to support x.400)
• XMPP, Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol
 Summary
Layer Functions Address , data unit Device Examples

A Allow access to N/W ,Helps Application that URL , computer HTTP, FTP, DNS, X.400
need to communicate to other nodes APDU
eg. email, remote file access & transfer, website
access
P Translation , Encryption , -- computer telnet, X.25 PAD,
Compression
S Session mgmt ( start, manage, -- , message computer PAP,RPC ,SMPP
stop),Authentication , Permissions
Session restoration
T Process to process delivery, Segmentation Port address, computer TCP, UDP
and reassembly , Connection control , Flow (16 bit),
control , Error control Message,
segment
N Source to destination delivery, Routing , Logical (IP) address Router, gateway IP , ICMP, IGMP,
Connection model (32 bit) , Packet
D Node to Node delivery, Framing , Flow Physical (MAC) NIC, switch 802.11, 802.2 , 802.
control , Error control , Access control address, (48 bit), (eternet) ,PPP
Frame
P Convert data to signal and vice versa , Bit NIC, hub 802.11,RS232, SONET,
electrical and mechanical specifications of Tx ,repeater 10baseT, X.25
media , encoding, mux ,data rate
Summary of functions of layers
Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) PROTOCOL SUITE

The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known as TCP/IP) is the set of

communications protocols used for the Internet and other similar networks.

It is named from two of the most important protocols in it: the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two
networking protocols defined in this standard.

Apart from these two , there are various other protocols in Internet protocol
suite.
It was first used in ARPANET ( by U.S. defense)
To connect military networks
So it was robust to failures & flexible to connect different types of networks.
Then it was given to govt. agencies & Universities.

and then being used in internet.

 OSI and TCP/IP mapping

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP
protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model
TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol at PL and DLL , it supports all
Protocols.
Internet layer
Internet layer Uses internetworking protocol (IP )

It also has protocols along with IP : ICMP,IGMP,ARP,RARP.

IP assures delivery of packets from source to destination system

IP is :
Connection less
Unreliable
• Connection less , goes out automatically without determining whether the receiver is
ready, or even whether a receiver exists. ( advantage over connection-oriented is that
,it has low overhead. It also allows multicast and broadcast. The packets are sent
from one party to another with no need for connection establishment or connection
release. The packets are not numbered; they may be delayed or lost or may arrive
out of sequence..
• Connection oriented where a communication session or a semi-
permanent connection is established between the sender and the receiver before
data transfer, and where a stream of data is delivered in the same order as it was
sent.
• Unreliable : No error checking whether packet has reached the RX without any error.
• IP packets are called datagrams which can travel along different paths. So there may be
no order when received by Rx or may get lost or duplicated.

• All error checking is done by TCP

IP packet header details

IPv4 uses 32 bit addresses , current IPv6 uses 128 bit addr.
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is the method for finding a host's link
layer (physical/MAC) address when only its Internet Layer (logical/IP)
address is known.
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) used by a host computer to
obtain its Internet Protocol (IPv4) address when it has only its physical
address , but RARP is now obsolete and replaced by DHCP which has
more features.
• The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) :used by networked
computers' operating systems to send error messages—indicating, for
instance, that a requested service is not available or that a host or router
could not be reached.
Eg
The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is a communications protocol used to
manage the membership of Internet Protocol multicast groups. IGMP is used by IP hosts
and adjacent multicast routers to establish multicast group memberships
Transport layer
The protocol used in this layer is Transmission control protocol(TCP)
the TCP makes delivery from a process in source system to a process in destination
system. for example a Web browser and a Web server.
functions of TCP :
• provides connection oriented ,
• Reliable ( error control)
• ordered delivery ( re sequencing of segments at Rx).
• controls segment size,
• Flow control the rate at which data are exchanged and to reduce network traffic
congestion.
TCP packet header details
SCTP: stream control Transport protocol:
developed for newer application eg VoIP .
It combines UDP and TCP’s best features.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• The User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• UDP uses a simple transmission model
• without hand-shaking dialogues ( connection less)
• So NO reliability, ordering, or data integrity. Thus, UDP provides an
unreliable service and datagrams may arrive out of order, appear
duplicated, or go missing without notice. UDP assumes that error checking
and correction is either not necessary or performed in the application, avoiding the
overhead of such processing at the network interface level.
• applications of UDP :
• the Domain Name System (DNS), streaming media applications such as
IPTV, Voice over IP (VoIP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) and many
online games.
UDP header
Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP contd …

OSI TCP/IP
It has 7 layers ( APSTNDP) It has 4 layers (ATIN)
OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols Used in
internet of the world.
OSI is a reference model around which the networks TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the OSI
are built. Generally it is used as a guidance tool. More model.
commonly used as teaching aids. De-jure De-facto
Follows vertical approach. (Corresponding Layers Follows horizontal approach. (Adjacent Layers
communicate) communicate)
OSI model has a separate Presentation layer and TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation layer
Session layer. or Session layer.
The model came first, and the protocols later The protocols came first, and the model later was
really just a description of the existing protocols.
Transport Layer is Connection Oriented Transport Layer is Connection Oriented
Network Layer is both Connection Oriented and Network Layer is Connection less.
Connection less.
OSI model has a problem of fitting the protocols
into the model.( some protocols combine functions TCP/IP does not have very strict
of various layers) because OSI has strict boundaries.
boundaries;
OSI model defines services, interfaces and In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not
protocols very clearly and makes clear distinction clearly separated. It is also protocol dependent.
between them. It is protocol independent.
The Presentation Layer Not found in TCP/IP model The Session layer Not found in TCP/IP model .In
In TCP/IP, this function is provided by the TCP/IP,its characteristics are provided by the TCP
Application Layer. protocol. (Transport Layer)
 addressing

Four levels of address are used in an internet employing the TCP/IP

protocols:
physical,
logical,
port, and
specific.
Relationship of layers and address in TCP/IP
physical address ( MAC address)

In Figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with

physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link (bus topology
LAN). As the figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is the
sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.
• most local-area networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon, as shown
below

07:01:02:01:2C:4B

A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

• A MAC address is a unique 48 bit network hardware identifier that is burned into a ROM
chip on the NIC( network interface card) to identify that device on the network. The first
24 bits is called the Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI) and is largely manufacturer
dependent. Each OUI allows for 16,777,216 Unique NIC address.
MAC address format
Q. How to find MAC address of computer ? Can we change it ?
Method 1 ) Press the Windows Start key to open the Start screen.
Type cmd and press Enter to launch the command prompt.
Type ipconfig /all into the command prompt.
Look for the MAC address listed as Physical address
Method 2 ) click on network icon in task bar
IP address
Next Figure shows a part of an internet with two routers connecting three LANs. Each
device (computer or router) has a pair of address (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is connected to only one link and therefore has
only one pair of address. Each router, however, is connected to three networks (only two
are shown in the figure). So each router has three pairs of address, one for each
connection.

Who assigns IP?

IP address
The physical address change from hop to hop,
but the logical and port address usually remain the same.

Why two addresses?

If a computer’s NIC gets faulty. It needs to be replaced with new NIC having another physical
address , But you can keep the same IP .
MAC works for computers in same network( eg LAN)
IP works for computers on different networks ( eg WAN)

A computer can find IP of a computer whose MAC is known by a protocol called ARP
And vice versa by RARP
Q how to find IP address ? Can we change it ?
Method 1 ) Press the Windows Start key to open the Start screen.
Type cmd and press Enter to launch the command prompt.
Type ipconfig /all into the command prompt.
Look for the IPV4 and IPV6 address
Method 2 ) click on network icon in task bar
Port address

• Used at transport layer to distinguish between different processes(applications)

• It is 16 bit ( so total 64000 address)
• But represented in decimal format eg 753
• Some of them are assigned to standard processes
• While remaining are available to developers.

• Port numbers for application is decided by the OS.

Next Figure shows two computers communicating via the Internet. The sending computer
is running three processes at this time with port address a, b, and c. The receiving
computer is running two processes at this time with port address j and k. Process a in the
sending computer needs to communicate with process j in the receiving computer. Note
that although physical address change from hop to hop, logical and port address remain
the same from the source to destination.
Port address
Rest of the ports details r in
[Link]
Q. How to see port number of processes which are communicating ?

c:\> tasklist /fi "IMAGENAME eq [Link]"

Specific address

Difficult for us to remember IP address which consists of just numbers,

so they are represented by user-friendly address.

Eg: [Link]

But These need to be converted back to IP for actual communication ,

Which is done by DNS
Types of Data flow in networks

Walky talky

telephone
Type of connections:
• [Link]-to-point connection( dedicated link between two stations)

• 2. Multipoint connection( shared link between more than two stations)

Topology (from the Greek topos: "place", and logis: "study") is the mathematical study
of shapes.
Two basic categories of network topologies :
1) physical topologies
2) logical topologies.

physical topology : refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. The
topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices(usually called nodes)to one another.
Basic Categories of physical topology

The combination of these is called hybrid topology :

A network structure which is a combination of more than one topology is said to be
hybrid topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating
topologies
Full Mesh
• In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device . The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects.
• The total number of links required to connect ‘n’ nodes is
n(n-1)/2 and Each node has n-1 ports
Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts
connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need
to provide reliability to some hosts out of all.
Advantages
• No problems of shared link ( since link is not shared by any node other than the two
nodes connected)
• robust. If one link becomes unusable ,it does not stop the entire system
• Privacy or security
Disadvantages
• Amount of cabling too bulky .
• Every device on the network must have n- 1
input/output (iO)ports to be connected to the other n- 1 stations
• So most expensive among all topologies
Application : to connect telephone exchanges together
• As a backbone connecting the main computers of other networks
Star Topology :
Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to central controller, usually called
a [Link] devices are not directly linked to one another.(Unlike a mesh topology.)
The controller acts as an exchange :If one device wants to send data to another, it
sends the data to the controller ,which then relays the data to the other connected
device
Advantage:
• easy to install and reconfigure: each device needs only one link and one I/O port to
connect it to any number of others.
• Robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected .All Other links remain active.
This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification & fault isolation.
• Hub can be used to monitor link problems and bypass defective links.
Disadvantage:
• Cost :less expensive than a mesh topology but more expensive than Bus
• the dependency of the whole topology on one single point , the hub. If the hub goes
down ,the whole system is dead.
• Cabling :requires far less cable than a mesh, but more cabling is required than in
some other topologies (such as ring or bus).
Application : local-area networks(LANs)
Bus Topology

consists of a single cable with a terminator at each end. All nodes (file server,
workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the cable via drop line and taps.
Advantages of a Bus Topology
• Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a bus.
• Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Bus Topology
• Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation : a fault or break in the bus cable stops all
transmission, even between Devices on the same side of the problem.
• There is a limit on number of taps and distance between taps
Application: earlier version of ethernet LAN , but now less popular.
Ring Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on
either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction , from device to
device , until it reaches its destination .
• A token is passed from one station to next. Only that station who has that token can
send data. Each device has to wait its turn to get the token.
Advantages
• Easy to install and reconfigure .Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors(either
physically or logically). To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections .
The only constraints are maximum ring length and number of devices.
• fault isolation is simplified. a signal is circulating at all times. If one device does not receive a
signal within a specified period ,it can issue an [Link] alarm alerts the Network operator
to the problem and its location.
Disadvantages : In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station)can disable the
entire network. This
weakness can be solved by using a dual ring
Application :
IBMs token ring LAN , but less popular nowadays
hybrid topology :
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating
topologies
The logical topology
in contrast to physical topology , is the way that the signals act on the network media,
or the way that the data passes through the network from one device to the next
without regard to the physical interconnection of the devices.

• A network's logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical topology.
For example, here hub connects nodes in physical star but is configured to connect
nodes in a ring .

physical star logical ring

Protocols on node make the network behave as ring.

Physical Bus but acts as Logical ring

physical star but acts as logical Bus
Transmission Media
• Guided Media : Twisted-Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable And Fiber Optic Cable,
• Unguided Media: Wireless , Radio Waves, Microwaves And Infrared

• Tx media is anything that can carry info from source to destination in form of EM signal.
• Different media has different properties and used for particular applications
• Classification of transmission media
Guided media:
are those that provide a conduit from one device to another . The signal is directed and
contained by physical limits of the medium .

Two subtypes:
1) Metallic media carries signal in form of electric current
2) optical media carries signal in the form of light.
Twisted-pair cable
• Why Two wires ? one for signal and one for reference or ground.
• Insulator to avoid shorting of lines .
• Why twists?
Noise affects both lines equally thus at Rx the effect
of noise gets cancelled.
• How many twists?
Number of twists per unit length decides the quality of cable.
More twists , better is the quality
Two types: UTP and STP
Unshielded : cheaper, but more affected by EM noise, more popular
Shielded : designed by IBM , metal braided mesh to prevent noise and crosstalk, but bulkier &
expensive , seldom used outside IBM.
• Categories of UTP cables by EIA ( electronics industries asso)
UTP performance
• Attenuation increases as frequency increases and decrease in thickness
UTP connector
• RJ stands for registered jack. Has 8 pins. Used in LAN
• RJ11 has 6 pins , used in land telephone system with modem.
Wiring
sequence
LAN Tester Cable extender
Coaxial cable
• Outer conductor is in the form of metallic braid used as shield for protection from noise
& to complete the circuit.
• It carries higher freq than TP
Categories of coaxial cables

• RG : radio govt ratings.

• Specifies wire gauge , type of insulator, size of casing etc.
BNC connectors
• BNC: Bayone-Neill –concelman
• Three types: connector to extend , T connector for taps & terminator
• What is the need of terminator?
To prevent reflection of signal else it works as antenna
Coaxial cable performance

Applications:
1)Was used in analog telephone networks( to carry 1000 voice channels, then for digital
telephone networks ( upto 600Mbps) But now replaced by FOC
2) Cable TV networks also used co-ax , but there also replaced by FOC
3) Ethernet LAN( Thin 10 base2 10Mbps over 200 meters , Thick 10base5 10Mbps over 500mtr)
but here also it replaced by UTP
Optical fiber
• Transmits signal in form of light.
• Is made of glass or plastic ( glass is costlier than plastic but has better quality , because
of less attenuation , more distance between repeaters ).
Fiber construction
• It consists of core and cladding both covered by buffer and jacket

The structure of a typical single-mode fiber.

1. Core: 8 µm diameter
2. Cladding: 125 µm dia.
3. Buffer: 250 µm dia.
4. Jacket: 400 µm dia.
Fiber-optic cable connectors
• FOC works on the principle of total internal reflection
• Light travels straight in single uniform material, but when enters into different density
material, the ray changes direction.
• As long as angle of incidence (I) is less than or equal to critical angle , ray gets refracted,
if greater then it gets reflected.

• Sin I = n cladding / n core (Cladding has less density than core )

Total internal reflection
video
Acceptance angle (θ) / Acceptance cone /Numerical aperture(NA)
Is the maximum angle ,within which all light rays having angle less than this ,will get
reflected internally.
• Advantages of FOC:
Higher BW limited only because of transducers at the ends.
Less signal attenuation: repeater after 50Km
Immunity to EM interference : since propagation by light
Glass is not corrosive but copper
Light weight
Immunity to tapping : copper cable acts as antenna
• Disadvantages of FOC:
Expensive installation and maintenance: expertise required
Unidirectional light propagation: so for duplex two FOCs required.
Cost: costlier cable and interfaces
Requires additional devices at both ends to convert electric signal to light and light back to
electric signal .
To convert electric signal to light : 1) LED 2) Laser diode
To convert light to electric signal : 1) PIN photodiode
2) PiPN Avalanche diode
Propagation modes of transmission of light in FOC
Multi-mode fiber
 Named because they use multiple modes namely TE,TM as well as TEM. multiple beams from light source
move through core in different paths.
 Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers)
 Divided in two sub types : step and graded index.
• Step Index : where density changes abruptly . So rays get reflected suddenly

• Graded index : where density changes gradually, So rays get reflected smoothly.
Single mode fiber:
 they support only one mode of propagation i.e. TE or TM ; all signals have one group velocity .
• Transverse electromagnetic (TEM) modes: neither electric nor magnetic field in the direction of
propagation.
• Transverse electric (TE) modes: no electric field in the direction of propagation. These are
sometimes called H modes because there is only a magnetic field along the direction of
propagation (H is the conventional symbol for magnetic field).
• Transverse magnetic (TM) modes: no magnetic field in the direction of propagation. These are
sometimes called E modes because there is only an electric field along the direction of
propagation.
The most common type of single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 8–10 micrometers.
Uses highly focused light , (laser), and propagation of beam almost horizontal.
All beams arrive at Rx together , so least distortion as compared to multimode.
But most costly; used for long haul communication
Fiber types

7 is core diameter 125 is cladding diameter

Source/transmitter device :
converts electric signal to light and injects into FOC
1) LED

Construction will not be asked in exam

2) LASER diode
Receiver device :
converts light coming through FOC into electric signal
1)PIN photodiode 2) PiPN Avalanche
 Freq range Typical attenuation Typical delay Repeater spacing
TP(with loading) 0 to 3.5 khz 0.2 dB/km 1KHz 50μs /Km 2 km
TP(multi pair 0 to 1Mhz 0.7 dB/km 1KHz 50μs /Km 2 km
cable)
Co-ax 0 to 500Mhz 0.7 dB/km 10MHz 4μs/Km 1 to 9 km
FOC 186 to 370 THz 0.2 to 0.5 dB/km 5μs /Km 40 km
Home assignment

Give Comparison of
• Single mode and multimode
• Step index and graded index
• TP , co-ax and FOC
Unguided media (wireless media)
• Transports/carries electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor . eg vacuum
or air.
• Signal is available to anyone who has device capable to receive them i.e. broadcast ( one
to many).

• Eg ?
• AM radio, FM radio, TV , bluetooth , GPS ,mobile, satellite , DTH, WSN, WiFi
Electromagnetic Spectrum And Typical Applications

• an electromagnetic (EM) wave is a signal made of oscillating electric and magnetic

fields. That is, the signal information is manifested as changing electric and magnetic
field intensities at specified number of times per second. The oscillations are
sinusoidal in nature. The oscillations can be as low as 1 Hz and can extend up to a
very large value as THz.
The entire range of frequencies, that the EM waves occupies is termed as Electromagnetic
Spectrum

It is from few Hz to THz

Is sound / audio an EM signal?

video of Audio signal

EM range is divided in four types :radio wave, microwave, infrared and light wave which are useful for
communication ( UV , X, gamma rays are not used for communication but for medical & other
applications )
• these are not crisp boundaries , In each range a typical application is only given as an example and is not
complete. Also, application given is the one which is more common among the public.
Propagation methods

Since Signals take different path depending on its frequency , they are classified as.

• Ground wave
• Sky wave
• Line of sight
Electromagnetic spectrum used for wireless communication

• Power lines use 50 or 60 Hz.

Ground propagation:
Signal of freq between 30Khz to 3Mhz emanate in all directions from antenna and
follow the curvature of the earth. More the Tx power ,more is the distance covered.
the EM wave must be vertically polarized to prevent short circuiting of E field
Sky propagation:
Freq between 2 to 30 MHz radiate upwards into ionosphere , where they get
reflected back to earth.( ionosphere acts as mirror in the sky)
Thus allows greater distances with lower Tx power
Line of sight:
Freq above 30 MHz ,travel in straight line directly from antenna to antenna, so
antennas must be facing each other and tall enough or close enough so as not to be
affected by earth’s curvature , tall buildings or mountains .

Videos of EM propagation
Radio & micro waves
Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio waves and microwaves,
electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally
called radio waves ;
waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.

microwaves are essentially radio waves with higher frequencies.

The wavelength of radio waves ranges from 100 kilometers and 100 meters for low to
medium frequencies, to 10 meters to 1 millimeter for high frequencies( hence the name
micro- waves )
• radio waves are used for long-distance communication within the ground due to their
longer wavelengths.
• On the other hand, microwaves are used for both long & short distance communication
• short distance communication such as in mobile , WLAN via Wi-Fi network, as well as WPN
protocols such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi Direct.
• long-distance communication (through relay links). Radio waves within frequencies
between 3 KHz and 300 MHz are reflected by the ionosphere. However, microwaves can
pass through the atmosphere because of their shorter wavelengths, thus making them
suitable for satellite communication between the ground and beyond the atmosphere.
Because of their higher frequencies, microwaves have more energy. So microwaves are used
in heating, such as in the case of microwave ovens, as well as in wireless power
transmission and direct-energy energy weaponry.
 Radio Microwave

Range of freq:

Range of wavelength

Propagation by

Applications in wireless
communication

Other applications:
 Radio waves: ( 3KHz to 1 GHz) ( ground & sky propagation)
These waves are Omni directional, so Tx and Rx antenna need not be aligned. So can be used for
multicasting such as AM radio, FM radio, TV, cordless phones, paging

Disadv: Waves Transmitted by one antenna can be interfered by another antenna sending a signal
having same freq band.
Applications : Radio waves using surface/ground mode r used for time signals, and for military
communications, especially with ships and submarines. Radio waves using sky mode r used for AM
radio
Microwave ( 1 to 300 GHz)
 Unidirectional ( line of sight) so Tx and Rx antenna need to be aligned.
 Since line of sight , Tx and Rx antenna must be put on tall towers,
 Repeaters r required for long distances.
 Adv: one pair of antenna does not interfere with other pair of antenna even though they may use
same freq.
 High data rate possible.
 Application: are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks.
Infrared (300G to 400T i.e. 1 to 770 nm )
 Used for very short range and line of sight
 Can not penetrate walls so adv is no interference between one system and another , or from one
room to another
 Appln: remote control for various gadgets
 IrDA specifies standards for data communication between wireless keyboard, mice, PC, printer with
speeds 75Kbps for 8meters , and recent is 4Mbps.
industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) radio bands
• are radio bands (portions of the radio spectrum) reserved internationally for the use
of radio frequency (RF) energy for industrial, scientific and medical purposes other
than telecommunications
• 2.4- 2.4835 GHz, 5.150-5.350 GHz and 5.725 – 5.875 GHz
• Despite the intent of the original allocations, and because there are multiple allocations,
in recent years the fastest-growing uses of these bands have been for short-range, low
power communications systems.
• Wireless LAN devices use wavebands as follows:
• Bluetooth 2450 MHz band falls under WPAN
• HIPERLAN 5800 MHz band
• IEEE 802.11/Wi-Fi 2450 MHz and 5800 MHz bands
• IEEE 802.15.4, ZigBee and other personal area networks may use the 915 MHz and 2450
MHz ISM bands