🧠 1.

SKULL (Axial Skeleton)

1.​ Frontal bone – forehead, superior orbits, frontal sinuses​

2.​ Parietal bones (2) – superior/lateral cranium​

3.​ Temporal bones (2) – sides of skull; contain:​

○​ External acoustic meatus​

○​ Mastoid process​

○​ Styloid process​

○​ Zygomatic process​

○​ Mandibular fossa​

○​ Carotid canal​

○​ Jugular foramen (with occipital)​

4.​ Occipital bone – posterior skull/base​

○​ Foramen magnum​

○​ Occipital condyles​

○​ External occipital protuberance​

5.​ Sphenoid bone – bat-shaped; forms part of cranial floor​

○​ Sella turcica​

○​ Greater and lesser wings​

○​ Optic canal​

○​ Pterygoid processes​
 6.​ Ethmoid bone – between nasal cavity and orbits​

○​ Cribriform plate & foramina​

○​ Crista galli​

○​ Perpendicular plate​

○​ Superior & middle nasal conchae​

B. Facial Bones (14 total)

1.​ Mandible – lower jaw; contains:​

○​ Body, ramus, angle​

○​ Condylar process (articulates with temporal bone)​

○​ Coronoid process​

○​ Mental foramen, mandibular foramen​

2.​ Maxillae (2) – upper jaw​

○​ Infraorbital foramen​

○​ Palatine process​

○​ Alveolar margin (teeth sockets)​

3.​ Zygomatic bones (2) – cheekbones​

4.​ Nasal bones (2) – bridge of nose​

5.​ Lacrimal bones (2) – tear ducts​

6.​ Palatine bones (2) – posterior hard palate​

7.​ Inferior nasal conchae (2) – lateral walls of nasal cavity​

C. Associated Bones

●​ Hyoid bone – in neck, no articulation; anchors tongue and muscles​

●​ Auditory ossicles (6 total):​

○​ Malleus, incus, stapes (x2)​

D. Cavities

●​ Cranial cavity​

●​ Orbits​

●​ Nasal cavity​

●​ Paranasal sinuses (frontal, maxillary, ethmoid, sphenoid)​

🦴 2. VERTEBRAL COLUMN (Axial Skeleton)

●​ Cervical (7) – C1–C7​

○​ C1 (Atlas) – supports skull, no body​

○​ C2 (Axis) – dens (odontoid process)​

○​ C7 – vertebra prominens​

●​ Thoracic (12) – T1–T12, articulate with ribs​

●​ Sacrum (5 fused) – forms sacral foramina, auricular surface​

●​ Coccyx (3–5 fused) – tailbone​

B. General Vertebral Structure

●​ Body (centrum)​

●​ Vertebral arch: pedicles + laminae​

●​ Vertebral foramen​

●​ Spinous process​

●​ Transverse processes​

●​ Superior/inferior articular processes​

●​ Intervertebral foramina (spaces between)​

🫁 3. THORACIC CAGE (Axial Skeleton)

1.​ Sternum​

○​ Manubrium​

○​ Body​

○​ Xiphoid process​

○​ Jugular notch​

○​ Clavicular notches​

○​ Sternal angle​
 2.​ Ribs (24 total, 12 pairs)​

○​ True ribs (1–7) – attach directly to sternum​

○​ False ribs (8–12) – indirect or no sternal attachment​

○​ Floating ribs (11–12) – no anterior attachment​

○​ Typical rib parts: head, neck, tubercle, shaft, costal groove​

3.​ Costal cartilage – hyaline cartilage connecting ribs to sternum​

4.​ Thoracic vertebrae – posterior attachment points​

💪 4. PECTORAL GIRDLE & UPPER LIMB (Appendicular

1.​ Clavicle​

○​ Sternal end (articulates with manubrium)​

○​ Acromial end (articulates with scapula)​

○​ Conoid tubercle​

2.​ Scapula​

○​ Spine​

○​ Acromion​

○​ Coracoid process​

○​ Glenoid cavity (for humerus head)​

○​ Supraspinous & infraspinous fossae​

○​ Lateral, medial, superior borders​

○​ Superior angle, inferior angle​

B. Upper Limb Bones

1.​ Humerus​

○​ Head (fits glenoid cavity)​

○​ Greater & lesser tubercles​

○​ Intertubercular sulcus (bicipital groove)​

○​ Deltoid tuberosity​

○​ Shaft​

○​ Capitulum (articulates with radius)​

○​ Trochlea (articulates with ulna)​

○​ Lateral & medial epicondyles​

○​ Olecranon fossa​

○​ Coronoid fossa​

○​ Radial fossa​

2.​ Ulna​

○​ Olecranon process (elbow)​

○​ Coronoid process​

○​ Trochlear notch (articulates with humerus)​

○​ Ulnar tuberosity​

○​ Styloid process​

○​ Head (distal end)​

3.​ Radius​

○​ Head (disc-shaped; articulates with capitulum)​

○​ Neck​

○​ Radial tuberosity (biceps attachment)​

○​ Styloid process​

○​ Ulnar notch (for ulna)​

C. Hand

●​ Carpals (8 total):​

○​ Proximal row: Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum, Pisiform​

○​ Distal row: Trapezium, Trapezoid, Capitate, Hamate​

●​ Metacarpals (5) – palm bones; numbered I–V​

●​ Phalanges (14) – digits​

○​ Thumb (pollex): 2 (proximal, distal)​

○​ Other fingers: 3 (proximal, middle, distal)​

🦵 5. PELVIC GIRDLE & LOWER LIMB

Each composed of three fused bones:

1.​ Ilium​

○​ Iliac crest​

○​ Anterior superior/inferior iliac spine​

○​ Posterior superior/inferior iliac spine​

○​ Greater sciatic notch​

○​ Iliac fossa​

2.​ Ischium​

○​ Ischial spine​

○​ Ischial tuberosity​

○​ Lesser sciatic notch​

○​ Ramus​

3.​ Pubis​

○​ Superior & inferior ramus​

○​ Pubic symphysis​

○​ Pubic crest​

○​ Obturator foramen (with ischium)​

○​ Acetabulum (socket for femur)​

B. Femur

●​ Head (fits acetabulum)​

●​ Greater & lesser trochanters​

●​ Intertrochanteric line and crest​

●​ Linea aspera​

●​ Gluteal tuberosity​

●​ Lateral & medial condyles​

●​ Lateral & medial epicondyles​

●​ Intercondylar fossa​

●​ Patellar surface​

C. Patella

●​ Sesamoid bone in quadriceps tendon​

●​ Base (superior), apex (inferior), articular surface (posterior)​

D. Tibia

●​ Medial & lateral condyles​

●​ Tibial tuberosity​

●​ Anterior crest (shin)​

●​ Medial malleolus​

●​ Inferior articular surface (for talus)​

●​ Head (proximal)​

●​ Neck​

●​ Shaft​

●​ Lateral malleolus (forms outer ankle)​

F. Foot

●​ Tarsals (7)​

○​ Talus (ankle joint)​

○​ Calcaneus (heel)​

○​ Navicular​

○​ Cuboid​

○​ Medial, intermediate, lateral cuneiforms​

●​ Metatarsals (5) – I–V, from medial to lateral​

●​ Phalanges (14) – toes​

○​ Hallux (big toe): 2​

○​ Others: 3 each​

🔬 6. MICROSCOPIC BONE STRUCTURE

●​ Compact bone (cortical) – dense outer layer​

B. Compact Bone Anatomy

●​ Osteon (Haversian system) – structural unit​

○​ Central (Haversian) canal: blood vessels, nerves​

○​ Concentric lamellae: rings of calcified matrix​

○​ Lacunae: spaces housing osteocytes​

○​ Canaliculi: tiny canals connecting lacunae for nutrient exchange​

●​ Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals: perpendicular to central canals​

●​ Interstitial lamellae: remnants of old osteons​

●​ Circumferential lamellae: around outer compact bone surface​

●​ Periosteum: outer connective tissue layer (fibrous + osteogenic layers)​

●​ Endosteum: lines medullary cavity and canals​

C. Spongy Bone Anatomy

●​ Trabeculae: thin bony plates forming open network​

●​ Osteocytes in lacunae between trabeculae​

●​ No osteons; nutrients diffuse through canaliculi from red marrow​

D. Bone Cells

1.​ Osteogenic cells – stem cells; become osteoblasts​

3.​ Osteocytes – mature cells in lacunae maintaining matrix​

4.​ Osteoclasts – bone-resorbing cells (break down matrix)​

E. Bone Marrow

●​ Red marrow: hematopoietic; found in trabecular cavities, epiphyses, sternum, pelvis​

●​ Yellow marrow: fat storage in medullary cavities​

F. Bone Coverings & Structures

●​ Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers: anchor periosteum to bone​

●​ Medullary cavity: hollow shaft in long bones​

●​ Articular cartilage: hyaline cartilage on joint surfaces​

●​ Nutrient foramina: entry points for blood vessels