FITTING SHOP

INTRODUCTION:

Components may be produced by working on metal either on a machine tool or on the bench.
Sometimes it becomes necessary to replace or repair a component which must fit accurately
with another component on re-assembly. This involves a certain amount of hand fitting. The
assembly of machine tools, jigs, gauges, etc. involves a certain amount of bench work. The
accuracy of work done depends upon the experience and skill of the fitter. Metal removal at the
bench requires the use of a number of simple hand tools and considerable manual effort.
Working on components with hand tools and instruments, mostly on work benches is generally
referred to as, 'Fitting Work‟. The hand operations in bench work consist of filing, chipping,
scraping, sawing, drilling, tapping, grinding etc.

HOLDING DEVICES:
The holding tools or vices are required to hold the work firmly. Following are the various types of
vices for different purposes.

1. Bench vice -It is used for holding the work and is firmly fixed to the bench with bolts and
nuts. It consists of an iron or steel cast body, square threaded screw, nut, handle (made of mild
steel), two jaws and jaw plates (made of cast steel). One of the two jaws is stationary, while the
other jaw is movable which can be brought close on the work by rotating the square threaded
screw in the nut. The jaws plates are knurled on one side and fixed in the jaws with the help of
screws and can be replaced when worn out. The knurling is done to help in gripping the work.
For holding soft material or finished work, soft plate liners or coverings made of lead, fiber,
copper, brass or tin plate are fitted over the jaws for giving protective grip in order to prevent the
surface of the finished cork from damaging

Fig [Link] Vice

2. Hand vice - It consists of two jaws and hands which are hinged together, on a pivot, on the
opposite ends. The work is held in between the serrated faces of the jaws with a screw and a
wing nut. A flat spring, fixed between the two hand jaws, helps open them out by its pressure.

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The vice is held in one hand and the required operation is performed by the other hand. It is
used for gripping small objects such as screws, rivets, small drills, keys of locks and other
similar objects which are too small to be conveniently held in bench vice.

Hand vice Pipe vice

Fig 1.2

3. Pipe vice -It is used for holding pipes, shafts or round jobs. It works on the same principle as
the bench vice. It consists of two jaws, one of which is fixed and the other is movable. The
shape of the jaws is like a V and it grips the work at four points or its surface.

4. Leg vice - It is generally used in a smithy shop, but it is also suitable for heavy hammering,
chipping and cutting in fitting shop. The vice is secured to the top of the bench by an iron strap
which is fastened to a plate bolted to the bench top. It differs from the bench vice in that the
movable jaw is pivoted about a point near to the middle of the leg of the vice. This prevents the
faces of the two jaws from being parallel to each other in every position except one position.

Fig [Link] Vice

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5. Pin vice -This is a holding device for small diameter work, such as wires and pins. It consists
of a fine self-centering chuck on a handle which may be of wood or metal. The work is gripped
between the jaws of the chuck by rotating the handle.

Pin Vice Tool maker's vice

Fig 1.4

6. Tool maker's vice- It is particularly used for holding small work for filing or drilling. It is made
of mild steel. It consists of a body with a stationary jaw, a movable jaw, a screw and a handle for
the control of movement of movable jaw

CLAMPING DEVICES :

Mechanical Clamping
1. Screw Clamping -
These are simple clamps where torque developed in a screw thread is used to hold the work
piece. It can be direct or indirect. There are different holding forces for different screw sizes.
2. C-Clamps –
A C-clamp or G-clamp is a type of clamp device typically used to hold a wood or
metal work piece, and often used in, but are not limited to, carpentry and welding. Often
believed that these clamps are called "C" clamps because of their C-shaped frame, or also often
called C-clamps or G-clamps because including the screw part, they are shaped like an
uppercase letter G.

Screw clamp C clamp

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3. Strap Clamps –

The basic operation is same as that of a lever. It can be classified into 3 based on the position
of work piece(work), support(fulcrum) and fastener screw(effort).

4. Swing Clamp –

Swing clamp has a screw clamp with swinging arm that pivots on its mounting stud.

5. Latch Clamp –

Latch clamp is known for its advantage in the speed of manipulation. It is limited to light work as
it is difficult to secure rigidly.

6. Pivoted Clamps –
Clamps are often pivoted at the center to simplify their operation. Tightening and loosening is
done using knurled head screw.

Strap Clamps Swing Clamp

Latch Clamp Pivoted Clamps

Fig 1.6

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TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT REQUIRED IN FITTING SHOP:

Both the bench work and fitting require the use of a number of simple hand tools.

Marking and Measuring Tools :

STEEL RULE :

When dimensions are given in drawing without any indication about the tolerance, it has to be
assumed that measurement are to be made with a Steel Rule, which is used for measurement
of length. It is usually graduated in millimeter and inches. It's least count is 0.5 mm or 1/64 of an
inch. Steel Rules are made of spring steel or stainless steel. The surface of the steel rule is
satin - chrome finished to reduced glare and to prevent rusting.

Measuring with a Steel Rule :

The given figure indicates the method of using a try square and a steel rule for accurate
measurements. It is necessary to read vertically and avoid errors arising out of parallax for
accurate readings. The steel rule graduations are accurately engraved, with line thickness
ranging from 0.12 to 0.18 mm.

Fig [Link] Tape

PRECAUTIONS:

a. For maintaining the accuracy of a steel rule, it is important that to see it that its edges and
surfaces are protected from damage and rust.

b. Do not place a steel rule with any cutting tools.

C. Apply a thin layer of oil when not in use.

FILES:

A file is a hardened piece of high grade steel with slanting rows of teeth. It is used to cut,
smooth or fit metal parts. It cuts all metals except hardened steel and it cuts only on the forward
stroke. It consists of a blade or body with a tang for fixing into the wooden handle. The teeth are

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cut on the blade which are hardened and tempered. The tang is tempered to make it soft and
tough. The metal ring on the file handle is called ferrule, in order to prevent splitting of the
handle. The files are classified according to the size, cut of teeth, grade and shape or cross-
section of the file as discussed below

(a) Size of file-The size of the file is indicated by its length. It is the distance from the point to
the heel without tang. The length of the file, in general use, is 200 mm to 450 mm and 100 mm
to 200 mm for finer work.

Fig [Link]

(b) Cut of teeth-The files, according to the cut of teeth, are divided into two groups, i.e., single
cut and double cut.

In single cut files, the teeth are cut parallel to each other running across the faces and at angle
of 65°-70°to the center line of the file. These files are frequently termed as flats and are
particularly used for very hard metals.

Fig [Link] cut and Single cut file

In double cut files, there are two sets of teeth. The first set of teeth are similar to those of single
cut files (i.e., at 70° to the center line of the file) while the second set of teeth are cut diagonally

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across the first set of teeth at an angle of about 45° to the center line of the file. All the teeth
have negative rake i.e., sloping backwards by which they cut only on the forward stroke. It
removes metal faster and is used for general work.

(c) Grade of cut of file -The single cut and double cut files, depending upon the pitch of the
teeth (i.e., spacing between the rows of teeth) may be classified as rough (R), bastard (B),
second cut (SC), smooth (S), dead smooth (DS) and superfine or super smooth (SS).

(d) Shape of files-The files, according to their shape or cross-section, are classified as
discussed below:

1. Flat file. A flat file is parallel for about two-thirds of its length and then tapers in width and
thickness. It has double cut on both faces and single cut on both edges. It is mostly used for
general work and for filing flat surfaces.

2. Hand file. A hand file, has its width parallel throughout, but its thickness tapers. The both
faces are double cut and one edge single cut. The uncut edge is called the safe edge and
prevents cutting into one face of a square corner while the other face is being filed. It is used for
general surfacing work, more particularly for filing steps or shoulders to square work without
touching and spoiling the adjacent surface, already made true.

3. Square file. A square file is parallel for two-thirds of its length and then tapers towards the
tip. It is double cut on all sides and is used for filing square corners and slots.

4. Pillar file. A pillar file, is similar to hand file, but is narrower and thicker than hand file. It has
one or both uncut edges (i.e., safe edges) and is used for narrow work such as keyways, slots
and grooves.

5. Triangular file. A triangular file, has width either parallel throughout or up to middle and then
tapered towards the tip. Its cross-section is triangular (equilateral) and the three faces are
double cut and edges single cut. It is used for filing square shoulders or corners and for
sharpening wood working saws.

6. Round file. A round file, has round cross-section. A file with width parallel throughout is
called parallel round and the file with width parallel up to middle and then tapering towards the
tip is called rat file. The round files are usually double cut on the Rough and Bastard qualities
over 15 cm long while the Rough and Bastard under 15 cm, together with second cut and
smooth, are single cut. The round files are used for opening out holes, producing round corners,
round-ended slots etc.

7. Half round file. The section of a half round file is not a true half circle but is only about one-
third of a circle. The width of the file is either parallel throughout or up to middle and then
tapered towards the tip. The flat side of this file is always double cut and curved side has single
cut. It is used for filing curved surfaces.

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8. Knife edge file-A knife edge file has a width tapered like a knife blade. It is also tapered
towards the tip and thickness. It is double cut on both flat faces and single cut on both edges. It
is used for finishing sharp corners of grooves and slots.

9. Warding file- A warding file is similar to flat file but it is thinner and parallel on its thickness.
It is used for filing narrow slots.

Fig [Link] Types of File

10. Mill file - A mill file is similar to flat file but parallel on both width and thickness and have
both edges round, It is single cut and is suitable for forming the radius on saw teeth and in slots.

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11. Needle files-The needle files are available in sizes from 100 mm to 200 mm of various
shapes and cuts. These files are used for fine work such as pierced design in sheet metal.

Filing-

Filing is required after chipping or cutting operation to remove burr and clean the face of the
cuts and to finish the final shape of the work piece. It may be noted that not more than 0.6 mm
should be left for filing. The filing operation consists of the following steps :

1. The work should be held firmly in the vice with the minimum amount of projection and with the
surface to be filed truly horizontal.

2. The file handle is grasped in the right hand and the end of the file handle pressing against the
palm of the hand. The pressure on the work is applied by holding the end of the blade with the
left hand. The worker should take his position on the left side of the vice with the feet firmly
planted, slightly apart.

3. A stroke should be made by a slight movement of the right arm from the shoulder and by a
sway of the body towards the work, each of these movements being about equal.

4. The file must remain horizontal throughout the stroke (which should be long, slow and steady)
with pressure only applied on the forward motion.

5. The file on the return stroke remains in contact with the work but the pressure is relieved from
it.

6. In order to test the surface of work during filing, a straight edge should be placed on it
occasionally and the line of contact is viewed for day-light. When any considerable amount of
metal has to be removed, the bulk of it should be removed by a rough or bastard-cut file and the
surface progressively brought to a finish by second-cut and smooth files.

Method of Filing

The following three methods are commonly used for filing:

1. Cross-filing. It is the most common method of filing for general shaping work. It is used for
efficient removal of maximum amount of metal in the shortest possible time. In this method, the
filing strokes run alternatively from left to right and from right to left so that whole of file surface
moves across whole of work surface in one stroke. In cross-filing the possibility of rounding of
surface is less and the scratch marks of the file teeth cross each other so that maximum amount
of metal is removed.

2. Straight filing. It is specially useful on long and narrow pieces of work whose width is less
than that of the file. In this method, the file stroke is made nearly at right angles to the length of
work.

3. Draw filing. The draw filing is used to remove file marks and for finishing operation. During
this operation, the file is gripped as close to the work as possible between two hands. It is

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moved lightly to and fro over the work. For this purpose, a fine cut file with a flat face (e.g., mill
file) should be used.

Fig 1.11. Methods of Filing

Cutting Tools

The chief cutting tools used in fitting are cold chisels, hacksaws and files. These are discussed
in detail.

Types of Chisels

The various types of chisels commonly used for fitting are as follows:

1. Flat chisel.

A flat chisel is the most common of all the chisels. It has a wide cutting edge about 16 mm to 32
mm and is slightly rounded to prevent the corners from digging into the metal. The length of the
chisel varies from 100 mm to 400 mm. It is used for chipping flat surfaces, cutting off sheet
metal, cutting bars and rivets.

Fig [Link] Of Chisel

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2. Cross-cut chisel or cape chisel.

A cross-cut or cape chisel has a cutting edge about 4 mm to 12 mm wide. From the edge, the
metal thickness tapers off slightly. This is to permit the chisel to clear when a groove is being
cut. It is widely used for cutting grooves in large surfaces before using the flat chisel. It is also
used for cutting keyways in wheels and shafts.

3. Half-round chisel.

A half-round chisel has a semi-circular cutting edge. The width of the cutting edge varies from 2
mm to 16 mm and length varies from 150 mm to 250 mm. It is used for cutting round or semi-
circular oil grooves in bearings, bosses and pulleys.

4. Diamond pointed chisel.

A diamond pointed chisel has a cutting edge shaped like a diamond. The width of the cutting
edge varies from 6 mm to 16 mm and length varies from 100 mm to 400 mm. It is used to cut V-
grooves and to chip square corners.

PUNCH

Punch is a marking tool used in order to make certain dimensional features of the layout
permanent. Basically, there are two types of punches such as : Dot and Centre Punch

Centre Punch:

Centre Punch as made of high carbon steel. The angle of the point is 90° in a centre
punch and the punch mark made by this is wide and not very deep, which is particularly used
for locating holes. Its length is from 35 mm to 125 mm. and its wide is from 4 to 12 mm. If this
centre is not made by the centre punch, then there are chances of slipping of the point and
drilling at a wrong point, which is shown as the given figure.

Fig 1.13 fig 1.14

Dot Punch :

Dot punch is used in order to lightly indent along the layout lines to locate centre of holes and to
provide a small centre mark for divider point etc. The main difference is that its point is at
60°Angle. Its length is from 80 mm to 100 mm. and its thickness from 3 mm to 5 mm. which is
shown as given figure. There are also different types of punches are available such as : Solid,
Hallow, Pin, Bell, Prick and Automatic Punch.

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PRECAUTIONS :

a) Do not use an ordinary punch or a hard metal.

b) Use a punch after seeing its angle.
c) If the point of the punch is damaged, then it should be repaired and the punch should be
used
d) Selection of punch should be made according to the make-up of the job or metal.

SCRIBER:

Fig [Link]

A scriber is a slender steel tool used to scribe or mark lines. It is made of steel or high carbon
steel wire of 3 mm to 5 mm, whose one end is straight and the other is bent at about 90° Angle.
Its length varies from 150 mm to 300 mm. Both its ends are pointed. There are Five types of
Scribers are available as follows : Ordinary, Improved, Adjustable Sleeve, Pocket and Knock
Scriber.

PRECAUTIONS:
a. Scriber points are very sharp, and they are to be handled very carefully.

b. Do not put the scriber in your pocket.

C. Place a cork on the point when not in use to prevent accidents.

HAMMER:

Hammer is a striking tool, which is used to beat or striking blows on jobs or metals or for driving
rails etc. It is also used to straighten or bend a job made of metal. In addition it is also used for
riveting, chipping and forging jobs and also used to cut hard wires with the help of a chisel as
shown in the figure. There are the following types of hammers are used in engineering fields
such as: Ball Peen Hammer, Cross Peen Hammer, Claw Hammer and Soft Harmer.
Hammers are named depending on their shape and material and specified by their weight. A
ball peen hammer has a flat face, which is used for general work and a ball end, particularly
used for riveting.

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V-BLOCK:

V-Block is a rectangular block, which has a 'V' shaped groove on its upper surface which is
shown in the given figure. The angle of the 'V' is during layout of measurements or for
measuring operations. Heavy round jobs are kept over it for marking. There is no provision to
clamp the job since because of heavy weight of the job, it remains fixed.

Fig [Link] Hammer fig 1.17.V-Block

TRY SQUARE:
Try Square as shown in fig 1.18 is used for measuring right angle of a job and for checking
squareness of many types of small works. The blade is made of hard steel and the beam of
steel. It is actually used to check whether the angle made by the two sides of square is a right
angle (90°) or not.

Fig [Link] Square and Mitre Square

PRECAUTIONS:
a. We should not use try square as a hammer i.e. we should not use it to hit any job otherwise it
accuracy is spoiled.

b. Try square should be kept away from cutting tools.

c. It should be cleaned properly before use.

d. After making its use, it should be kept after applying grease.

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SURFACE PLATE:

Surface Plate is used for marking purpose. The job is placed over the surface plate and marked
with the help of bevel protractor. It is made of cast iron. It is usually rectangular in shape.

PRECAUTIONS:

a. Before marking or measuring a job, its surface should be properly cleaned with a soft paper.

b. While using, it should not be hit as there are chances of damage to its surface.

c. In order to make the marking of the job permanent it should not be used as a table.

d. Cutting tool should never be used on it.

ANGLE PLATE:

Angle Plate is placed over the surface plate for supporting jobs at the time of marking. It is made
of cast iron. The angle plate is built at 90° Angle, which has rectangular grooves. Both its outer
surfaces are accurately plained by the scraper. In case of heavy jobs, nut bolts are fitted in its
grooves and marking is done. Angle plate is of two types such as : Fixed angle and Adjustable
angle plate.

PRECAUTIONS:

a. Angle plate should be carefully handled and maintained.

b. Any nicks or scratches can spoil the accuracy of the angle plates.

c. In order to make the marking of the job permanent it should not be used as a table.

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OUTSIDE CALIPER :

The caliper whose leg bent toward the centre is called Outside Caliper. It is used to measure the
outside diameter of a cylinder, bar etc. It is also used for transfer dimension one place to
another place by the help of steel rule.

INSIDE CALIPER :

The Caliper whose leg outward to the centre is called inside caliper. It is used to measure inside
diameter of a hole, bore, slot etc. It is also used for transfer dimension one place to another
place by the help of steel rule.

Fig 1.19. Various Types Of Calliper

Steel Tape :
Steel Tape is a measuring instrument, which is used to measure length, breadth and thickness
of a job.

Spirit Level :
Spirit Level is used for testing the levels of flat surface

Straight Edge :
This tool is used for testing the straightness and flatness of plane surfaces

Dividers :
Dividers is used for marking circles, arcs, laying out perpendicular lines, bisecting lines etc.

COMBINATION SET :
Combination Set is a very useful instrument having a combination of five different instruments in
one. A combination set consists of a rule, square head, centre head and a protractor. This may

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be used as a rule, a square, a depth gauge for marking degrees (45°) and for locating the
measuring and marking angles.

Fig [Link] Set Fig [Link]

VERNIER CALIPER:

Vernier Caliper is a precision measuring instrument used for measurement of outside diameter,
inside diameter and depth. The least count of Vernier caliper is 0.001 inch and 0.02 mm. Vernier
caliper is made by assembling several different parts as shown in the given figure.

Fig [Link] Caliper

METHOD OF TAKING READING:

a. Write that part of the scale which contains inch signs and which is on the left hand side of 0,
on the Vernier scale.

b. Look at the divisions of central distance. How many of them are on the left hand side of 0 of
the Vernier ? Their value is 0.1 and 0.2 inch, respectively.

c. Write the small parts of the main scale. Their value is 0.025.

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d. Write down the part of the Vernier scale which corresponds with the main scale after carefully
watching it.

e. The sum total of all the four items written above is reading of the Vernier caliper.

PRECAUTIONS:

a. It is necessary that there is no play in its beam and movable jaw.

b. After long use, the jaw-edges wear out. In such cases, it should be regrinded.

C. A job fixed on a machine in operation should not be Scale measured with it.

d. Is should always be kept away from the cutting tools.

e. It is difficult to see the part of scale. Therefore, it is advisable to use a magnifying glass.

f. After using it, we should clean it with thinner and keep it in the case.

VERNIER HEIGHT GAUGE:

Vernier Height Gauge is similar to Vernier calipers and used for marking purpose by the help of
surface plate and angle plate. It consists of scriber by which lines are scribed on the job. In
Vernier height gauge, slide base remains joint with the beam permanently as shown in the
figure.

Fig [Link] Height Gauge

PRECAUTIONS:

a. It should always be used on the plain surface of the job.

b. While marking, excessive pressure should not be exerted on its scriber.

c. It should be used on a surface plate only.

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d. It should be used only for precision marking or measurement.

e. Its reading should be noted down.

MICROMETER:

Micrometer is a measuring instrument used for measuring external, internal and depth
dimensions accurately. They are available in different ranges. It is made on the basis of nut and
screw bolt. The different parts of the micrometer are given in the figure. There are Three types
of micrometer such as: Outside, Inside and Depth Micrometer.

Fig [Link]

PRECAUTIONS:
a. Before using it, it should be properly cleaned with a soft cloth.

b. Before use, it should be ensured that it is faultless.

c. It should not be used on machines in operation or on rough surface.

d. Before measuring, job should be properly cleaned.

e. For setting it Ratchet Stop should be used.

f. After measuring, it should be locked and then reading should be taken.

g. While keeping it, anvil and spindle should be separated.

h. It should be saved from water.

DEMONSTRATION OF VARIOUS OPERATIONS IN FITTING SHOP

A. SAWING OPERATION

It is the cutting and slotting operation and performed as follows:

1. The work is held tightly in the vice.

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2. A suitable blade is fixed with its teeth facing forward so that it cuts the material in the forward
stroke. The blade is tensioned sufficiently by a wing nut.

3. The course of the desired cut is marked by a guide line on the work and a nick or notch is
made with a file.

Fig [Link] Operations

4. The frame of the hacksaw is held

5. Now the cutting is started at the neck by keeping the blade slightly inclined to the horizontal,
as shown in Figure. The pressure is applied during the forward stroke and it should be relieved
during the return stroke.

6. Material of blades:

HCS: High Carbon Steel

HSS: High Speed Steel

B. CHIPPING OPERATION

The operation used for cutting or removing thick layers of metal by means of cold Chisels, is
known as chipping.

Fig [Link] Operation

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The chipping operation is carried out as follows:
1. The work is firmly held in a vice.

2. The chisel is firmly gripped in the left hand leaving some distance above the thumb of the
hand as shown in Fig.

3. The hammer is grasped near the end of the hammer in the right hand. In operation, it should
be brought up to the shoulder to ensure more power in the blows.

The following points should be kept in mind while chipping the surface.

(a) The same cutting angle of the chisel must be maintained during the chipping operation.

(b) If the surface to be chipped is very large, it is advisable to cut grooves along the whole
surface by means of a cross-cut or cape chisel and then chip off the remaining metal.

(c) When removing large amount of metal, it is necessary to lubricate the cutting edge frequently
in order to have longer life of the chisel and to make chipping easier and smoother.

(d) The operator who performs the chipping operation should always keep his eyes on the
cutting edge of the chisel and not at the head.

FITTING OPERATION

Fitting deals which the assembly of mating parts, through removal of metal, to obtain the
required fit. Both the bench work and fitting requires the use of number of simple hand tools and
considerable manual efforts. The operations in the above works consist of filing, chipping,
scraping, sawing drilling, and tapping

Fig [Link]-Female Fitting

Marking
The marking out operation consists of scratching of lines on the surface of a sheet metal. It is
also called scribing operation. Before marking operation is curried out, the paper or metal
pattern of the object is prepared. The metal pattern is desirable for repetitive work because it

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maintains accuracy for a long time, whereas the paper pattern tears quickly if used repeatedly.
GRINDING

The grinding is the process of removing metal by the use of grinding wheels. The work for
grinding is pressed against the grinding wheel which rotates at a comparatively high speed and
the surplus metal is removed by abrasion as shown in figure 1.28. It produces extremely smooth
finish due to the small cutting edges on the wheel. It can finish work to very accurate
dimensions in a short time.

Fig [Link] Machine

REAMING:
It is the process of making a hole smoothly and accurately by the tool called reamer. Reaming is
a cutting process that involves the use of a rotary cutting tool to create smooth interior walls in
an existing hole in a work piece. The rotary cutting tool used in reaming is known as a reamer.
Like drill bits, reamers also remove material from the work piece on which they are used.
However, reamers remove significantly less material than drill bits. The primary purpose of
reamer tool as shown in fig 1.29 is simply to create smooth walls in an existing hole.

Fig [Link]

DRILLING
Drilling operation as shown in fig 1.31 is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of

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circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multi-
point. The bit is pressed against the work-piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to
thousands of revolutions per minute.

Fig [Link] Operation

The operation of making round holes in metal pieces is known as drilling. It is done with the help
of a drilling machine. There are many types of drilling machines, but the most common drilling
machine used in fitting shop is a vertical drilling machine.
The drilling operation is carried out as discussed below:
1. First of all, the work is marked with a centre punch at the centre of the hole to be drilled.
2. It is then firmly held in a vice or other suitable clamping device and placed on the adjustable
table of the drilling machine.
3. The drill is fitted in the chuck.
4. The spindle with the chuck is lowered by the hand lever and it is ensured that the point of
the drill is in exact alignment with the previously marked centre of the hole.
5. The motor is now started and the rotating drill is gradually pressed into the work to produce
the desired hole.
6. The pressure should be frequently relieved during the drilling operation, otherwise the cutting
edges of the drill will be strained and the drill is damaged.
7. In order to avoid the spoiling of cutting edges of the drill, a coolant such as oil or soap water
should be used constantly during the drilling operation. The coolant is not required while drilling
in brass and cast iron.
SCRAPPING:
The process of removing metal with a scraper to obtain a true flat surface, is known as scraping.
Before scraping, it is necessary to establish the high spots or impressions on the work which
require scraping. This is done by moving the surface of the work to and fro on the surface plate,
top of which is covered with a thin film of Prussian blue or red lead. The high spot marked on
the surface of the work are now scrapped down by a scraper.

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 Fig 1.32. Scrapping Operation

Care of Scraper: Since the scrapers have a very sharp cutting edges, therefore, when these
are not in use it advisable to keep them lightly oiled and individually wrapped in a piece of cloth
or felt or soft material, to protect the extremely hard cutting edge.

TAPPING:
A tap is a screw-like tool which has threads like a bolt and three or four flutes cut across the
thread. It is used to cut threads on the inside of a hole, as in a nut. The edges of the thread
formed by the flutes are the cutting edges. The lower part of the tap is somewhat tapered so
that it can well dig into the walls of the drilled hole. The upper part of the tap consists of a shank
ending in a square for holding the tap in the machine spindle or by a tap wrench.

Fig. [Link]

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 Fig. 1.34 Various types of Taps

The process of cutting internal threads into a drilled hole by using a tap is known as tapping. For
tapping, the following procedure is adopted:
1. First of all, a hole is drilled to a diameter smaller than the outside diameter of the threading
the tap i.e., equal to the core diameter. The diameter of the hole to be drilled is called tapping
size.
Mathematically,
Tapping size = Outside diameter- 2 x Depth of thread
Where, Depth of thread = 0.64 x Pitch of thread
2. After drilling the tapping hole, the taper tap is fixed in the tap wrench and screwed in the hole.
Before commencing to screw it round for cutting the thread, the tap position must be adjusted
until it stands square with the tap surface of the work and it must be maintained square.
3. For all materials except cast iron a little oil on the tap is applied to lubricate its action and
improve the finish of the threads.
4. When the taper tap is felt to have started its work and its squareness has been checked, the
cutting of threads proceeds. It should be kept in mind that the tap is not turned continuously, but
at every half-turn it should be reversed slightly to clear the threads.
5. When the hole is straight through, the reduction of resistance indicates the taper tap cutting a
full thread and it may be removed from the hole which may be finished with the second tap.
6 When a blind hole is tapped, the tap should be withdrawn from time and the metal cleared
from bottom of the hole.
DIES -
A tool used for cutting external threads on bars or tubes is called a die. It consists of a nut
having portions of its thread circumference cut away and shaped to provide cutting edges to the

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remaining portions of the threads. After hardening and sharpening of the cutting edges, this is
screwed on to the bar upon which the thread is to be cut. In order to hold and manipulate the die
it is carried in the centre of a pair of operating handles called stocks.

Fig. 1.35 various Dies

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