PLANTS

a)unicellular – their body contains 1 eukaryotic cell responsible for all living functions
b)multicellular – their body is composed of group of cells of the same type – forming tissues, they perform common function
PLANT TISSUE
- histology studies microscopic structure of plant and animal tissue
A. PERMANENT TISSUE (cells dont divide, they are differentiated)
1. GROUND TISSUE – a) parenchyma – cells loosely packed, cube-packed or elongated
– contains large central vacuole and thin flexible cell walls, fills internal parts
– storage, support, photosynthesis (e.g. onion bulb)
b) collenchyma – cell walls are irregular in shape and thickened in corners – strenght and flexibility
– support the growing parts of plant (e.g. stem of fruits of pumpkin, cucumber, potato..)
c) sclerenchyma – rigid thick cell wall
– support the non growing parts of the plants (e.g. pit of plum, apricot)
– two types of cells: fibres (occur in strands, e.g. linen) & sclereids (cause gritty texture)
2. VASCULAR TISSUE – carries water and nutrients throughout the plant and helps support the plant
- typical for higher plants in which they form vascular bundles
Types of vascular bundles – collateral, bicollateral, concentrical and radial
a) xylem – moves water and minerals upward from roots to leaves, forms transpiration stream
– contains tracheids and vessel elements
b) phloem – moves sugar/sap in both directions throughout the plant originating in the leaves, forms assimilation stream
– contains sieve tubes and companion cells
3. PROTECTIVE TISSUE (=dermal tissue)
- forms outside covering the roots, stems and leaves
- no intercellular spaces
- below the ground = rhizodermis – protects the root, forms root hairs that absorb water and nutrients
- above the ground = epidermis - prevents the plant from drying by reducing water loss from evaporation
- special structures derived from epidermis:
a) cuticle – thin waxy layer over the epidermis helping to reduce water loss
b) stoma/stomata – openings in the epidermis regulating the passage of gases & moisture in&out of plant, contains chloroplasts
c) hydathodes – water excreting epidermal structures, formed from the stomata which lost the ability to open and close
d) trichomes – epidermal outgrowths, can be glandular, stinging or absorptive
e) emergencies – epidermal outgrowths like thorns spines or tentacles
4. SECRETORY TISSUE – its cells secrete different types of substances, e.g. latex by laticifers, nectar by nectaries...
B. MERISTEMATIC TISSUE (its cells divide continuously)
5. MERISTEMATIC – forms meristems (we know apical(length at the tip), intercalary(length between nodes) and lateral(diameter))
PLANT ORGANS
1. Vegetative – roots, stems and leaves – provide nutrition and growth
2. Generative – flowers, fruits and seeds – provide the production of gametes
ROOT
- functions – anchor plant in soil, absorption of water and nutrients, storage of energy reserves
- root anatomy –
1. root cap – protective covering of the root tip which produces a slimy substance (like
lubricating oil) ehich allows root to move easily through the soil as it grows
2. root tip – contains apical meristem
3. rhizodermis – protective tissue of the root, forms root hair
4. primary cortex – composed of parenchyma cells with numerous air spaces, storage for
starch and other metabolites
5. vascular cylinder (=stele) – core of the root, contains pericycle(7), phloem(8), xylem(9),
pith and pith rays
6. root hairs – composed of tiny hair-like struucture, increases absorbing are of root system
The growing part of the root is divided into 3 zones:
a) meristematic – zone of cell division, includes apical meristem
b) zone of elongation
c) zone of differentiation
Secondary growth of the root
-begins when vascular cambium is formed between xylem and phloem
-vascular cambium produces secondary xylem toward the middle part of the root and secondary phloem outward the root
-cork cambium produces cork
1. between the apical meristem and the root cap there is the region of slowly growing cells known as the quiescent centre
2. follows the meristematic zone of the root growth, in this zone cells elongate which causes increase in root length
3. in this zone cells start to differentiate = they become specialized (their shape and function is given) which leads to the
formation of root tissues
ROOT SYSTEMS
[Link] system – contains 1 main root = taproot and numerous lateral roots
-usually fleshy (adapted for food storage)
-it grows deeper than lateral roots
-it can reach water far below the surface
-typical of dicots
[Link] system – contains numerous extensively branched roots, equal in size
- main root is usually short-lived = difficult to distinguish
-typical of monocots
[Link] – roots grow from stems(corn) or modified leaves(onion bulb)
SHAPES OF ROOTS – cylindrical, conical, beetlike, filamentous
METAMORPHOSIS OF ROOTS
-highly specialized roots, typical of plants that live in unusual places
a) prop roots – supports a plant in the muddy ground, they exist partly in the air and partly in the waterlogged soil (mongrove)
b)air roots – obtain water and mineral nutrients from air (orchid)
c)storage roots – specialized for food storage (carrot)
d) mycorrhiza – a beneficial association between roots of plants and fungi (birch)
e) root nodules – nitrogen fixing bacteria – beneficial association between rhizobium bacteria and roots of plants of the bean
family
f) haustoria – parasitic plant roots that invade the tissues of a host lant and transfer minerals from host to parasite (mistletoe)
STEM (= CAULOM)
CHARACTERISTIC
- aboveground part of higher plants, which produces leaves up to the sunlight
FUNCTIONS
- to form main axis of a plant, to increase the plant surface by forming the lateral branches
- to hold vegetative and generative organs of the plants
- to transport water and mineral substances from the roots and products of photosynthesis from leaves to other plants
- in some cases it has also storage function, like cactus – water, tuber – nutrients
STRUCTURE OF THE STEM
- node – regions where leaves attach to a stem
- internode – regions/segments between nodes
- axillary bud =lateral bud – at the point of attachment of each leaf, is capable of developing into a new shoot
- apical bud = terminal bud – at the tip of each stem, contains an apical meristem,it is enclosed by specialed leaves called bud
scales
STEM ANATOMY
- epidermis – protective tissue of the stem, composed of tightly packed cells
– can produce cuticle or may be impregnated by silicon dioxide, e.g. horsetail
- primary cortex – composed of parenchyma cells, can contain resin, essential oil ducts and laticifers
- vascular cylinder – contains – pericycle, pith, vascular tissue = phloem(toward the outside) and xylem(toward the inside)
ARRANGEMENT OF VASCULAR BUNDLES IN MONOCOTS AND DICOTS
[Link] stem (dicots = dvojklíčnolistove rastliny) – vascular bundles are arranged in circle
[Link] stem(monocots = jednoklíčnolistové) – vascular bundles are placed randomly
SECONDARY GROWTH IN STEM (TYPICAL FOR WOODY STEM)
a)through vascular cambium
- produces seconodary xylem = wood to the inside and secondary phloem to the outside of the stem
- springwood – is produced during spring and contains cells that are wide and thin walled, it’s light, sapwood
- summerwood – produced in summer and contains cells that are smaller with thicker walls, it’s dark, heartwood
- annual rings – are produced as a result of changing between small summerwood cells and the following year’s large
springwood cells
b)through cork cambium
- produces cork
- rhytidome – protective layer of mostly dead cells that covers the outside of woody stem, is produced by the activity of the cork
cambium
- lenticels – pores in the stems of woody plants that allow gas exchange
METAMORPHOSIS OF THE STEMS
above ground (3 own examples) – tiller – grass shoot produced from the base of the stem, e.g. couch-grass
– thorn – a sharp pointed branch, e.g. hawthorn, blackthorn
– cladode – a flattened main stem resembling a leaf, e.g. cacti, asparagus below ground (3 own examples) – tuber – an
underground storage organ, e.g. potato
– bulb – underground stem surrounded by fleshy leaves, e.g. onion
– a horizontal underground stem, e.g. iris
STEM BRANCHING
1. monopodial – lateral branches do not grow out the main stem
2. sympodial – lateral branches grow out the main stem
3. pleiochasial – the main stem stops the growth and its apical tip is divided into two equal tips
Leaf= PHYLOM
CHARACTERISTICS:
- grows from the nodes of the stem
- leaf + stem = shoot
FUNCTIONS:
- is the primary site of photosynthesis because it contains chloroplasts
- provides a flat surface for maximum exposure to sunlight
- is place of transpiration - the evaporative loss of water from leaf surface
- gas exchange, mineral intake in the form of water solution
TYPES OF LEAVES:
1- broad – like leaf
2- scale-like
3- needle-like
LEAF MORPHOLOGY:
1 = stipule (palístok) - flat, often leaf-like flap below a leaf, e.g. rose. Not all leaves have stipules. Stipules can be highly modified
into tendrils, spines, scales
2 = petiole - the stalk(stopka) of a leaf
3 = base
4 = midrib= primary vein
5 = secondary vein
6 = blade = lamina - the flat, expanded portion of the leaf
a)monofacial leaf – upper and lower part of the blade are the same, e.g. lily of the valley, iris, tulip
b)binofacial leaf - upper and lower part of the blade are the different, e.g. maple, linden, dandelion
7 = apex
leaf sheathing – is typical for monocot plants
LEAF ANATOMY
- the blade is flattened portion, that is attached to the plant by a structure called the petiole
- sometimes leaves are divided into two or more sections called leaflets
- leaves with a single undivided blade are called simple, those with two or more leaflets are called compound cuticle - thin waxy
covering on the outer surface of the leaf, primary function is to prevent water loss within the leaf epidermis - layer of cells
directly underneath the cuticle
- xylem and phloem are found within the veins of the leaf, veins are extensions that run from to tips of the roots all the way up
to the edges of the leaves, also lines the lower area of the leaf (as does the cuticle)
bundle sheath cells – cells making up the outer layer of the vein), and they create a circle around the xylem and the phloem
xylem - the upper layer of cells, transports water, is shaded a little lighter than phloem
phloem - the lower layer of cells, transports sugar (food)
mesophyll - layer of cells within the leaf, (the word mesophyll is Greek and means "middle" (meso) "leaf" (phyllon)
- mesophyll cells are packed with chloroplasts, and this is where photosynthesis actually occurs
- it can then be divided into two layers, the palisade and the spongy layer
palisade cells - more column-like, and lie just under the epidermis
spongy cells -more loosely packed and lie between the palisade layer and the lower epidermis, the air spaces between the
spongy cells allow for gas exchange
stomata - tiny holes in the leaf within the epidermis
- changes within water pressure cause the stoma (singular of stomata) to open or close
guard cells - specialized cells, that surround the stomata and are shaped like two cupped hands,
- if the guard cells are full of water, they swell up and bend away from each other which opens the stoma. During dry times, the
guard cells close
TYPES OF LEAF VENATION:
- parallel venation- with all the main veins parallel, e.g. grasses
- pinnate venation - with a main midrib and secondary veins arising from it at intervals, [Link] tree, apple tree, linden
- palmate venation - with the main veins all arising from one point at the base of the leaf, e.g. maple
FORMS OF LEAVES ACCORDING TO THEIR COMPLEXITY:
Petiolate - the blade is attached to the stem by a petiole.
Sessile - the blade is attached directly to the stem without a petiole.
LEAF ARRANGEMENT ON THE STEM:
B = opposite –leaves are arranged two per node
A = alternate – leaves are arranged one per node
C = whorled – leaves are arranged three or more per node
D = basal
ANATOMY OF BIFACIAL LEAF:
- mesophyll consists of palisade and spongy parenchyma
- lower epidermis contains stomata
ANATOMY OF MONOFACIAL LEAF:
- mesophyll is not differentiated
- stomata are located on the both parts of epidermis
LEAF CATEGORIES:
cotyledon – embryonic leaf in seed-bearing plants, e.g. monocots = 1, dicots = 2, conifers = more than two
assimilatory leaf – photosynthesis, transpiration
stipule
bract - a modified leaf or leaf like part just below and protecting an inflorescence
bracteole – a small bract
flower – a modified leaf
METAMORPHOSIS OF THE LEAF
• hairy leaf surface – to lessen water loss
• waxy leaf surface – to prevent water loss
• small, shiny leaves – to deflect the sun’s rays
• thicker leaves – to store water, e.g. rhubarb
• spines – e.g. cactus, acacia, barberry
• leaves to trap insect , e.g. carnivorous plant
• bulb – to store food , e.g. onion
• tendril – e.g. bean, pea
FLOWERS = MODIFIED LEAVES
CHARACTERISTICS:
- location - above ground, usually at the top of the stem
- functions – reproduction – production of gametes
BASIC REPRODUCTIVE PARTICLES OF THE PLANTS:
- spores - are formed from the somatic cells (2n = diploid cells → they have …… sets of chromosomes)
- seeds - are formed during the process of pollination and fertilization by using gametes = gametic cells (n = haploid cells → they
have half the normal number of chromosomes in comparison to diploid cells)
MORPHOLOGY OF THE FLOWERS:
A. FLOWERS OF GYMNOSPERMS = form “naked seeds” → seeds are not enclosed in a fruit, the organ that contains reproductive
structures is called cones = strobilus (strobili – pl.)
- the male cone = MICROSTROBILUS = male organ ; contains a short spindle that is surrounded by microsporophylls (tiny
modified leaves); it contains polen grains
- the female cone = MEGASTROBILUS = seed cone female organ, contains a short spindle that is surrounded by
megasporophylls (tiny modified leaves); it contains ova (2 per one megasporophyll)
B. FLOWERS OF ANGIOSPERMS = they form their seeds enclosed in a fruit, modified leaves could be arranged into the circle or
into the spirale
a) complete flowers – have sepals, petals, stamens and pistils
b) incomplete flower – miss one or more of four basic parts
PARTS OF THE FLOWER:
receptacle - the top of the stem supporting a flower.
sepal - collectively are called the calyx, symbol: K . They are the outermost floral parts and are commonly leaf-like and green. The
sepals enclose the flower bud and may or may not survive for the life of the flower. It has the protective function.
petals - collectively are called the corolla, symbol: C. Found just inside the sepals, petals are usually delicate and brightly
coloured to attract insects for pollination.
tepals –collectively are called the perianth, symbol: P. They are typical of flowers without distinction between sepals and petals
(they look alike).
stamen (male reproductive structures) collectively are called the androecium, symbol: A. They are the male reproductive parts
of the flower and are located inward from the perianth or corolla.
parts of a stamen: - anther - the sac-like part, which contains the pollen
- filament - the stalk connecting the anther to the flower
pistil (female reproductive structures) collectively are called the gynoecium, symbol: B. The female reproductive parts of a
flower, the pistils, are located in the centre of the flower
- a gynoecium may be a single pistil or many pistils, but pistils are generally composed of:
stigma - the pollen-receptive part at the top of the pistil
style - the stalk that carries the pollen from the stigma to the ovary
ovary - the enlarged portion at the pistil base where the egg cells = ova are produced; the basic unit of the construction of the
ovary is the carpel
DIVISION OF FLOWERS:
[Link] to the presence of flower leaves
-with distinction between sepal and petals, e.g. Dog rose, daisy
-without distinction between sepal and petals, e.g. tulip, lily, snowdrop
[Link] to the presence of reproductive organs
a) unisexual flowers = Imperfect flowers – they have either stamens or pistils, but not both, e.g. willow, hop, hemp, nettle, yew -
staminate flowers
- pistilate flowers
b) bisexual = hermaphrodite flowers = Perfect flowers – they contain both types of reproductive organs, e.g. sunflower, tulip
[Link] to the presence of unisexual flowers on the plant
a)Monoecious plants – have imperfect flowers with both sexes growing on a plant, e.g. hazel, birch, maize, elder
b)Dioecious plants – have imperfect flowers with only one sex growing on each plant, e.g. willow, hemp