Real Functions

A. LOUARDANI

18 décembre 2024

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1 Generalities
2 Some Properties of Real Functions
Even and Odd Functions
Periodic Functions
Composition of Functions
Order Relation
Bounded Function, Upper Bounded, Lower Bounded
Monotony of Functions
3 Limits
Function Defined in the Neighborhood of a Point
Finite Limit of f
Infinite Limit of f
Left and Right Limits
Using Sequences to Express a Function Limit
4 Continuity
Continuity from the Left and Right
Continuity on an Interval
Operations on Continuous Functions
Extension by continuity
Fundamental Theorems on Continuous Functions
Intermediate Value Theorems (IVT)
Continuous Function on an Interval 2 / 92
 Generalities

Definition 1.
Let I and J be two sets in R, generally intervals or a union of intervals. We have

f :I→J

f defines a relation from I (called the domain) to J (called the codomain), where
each element x in I (called the pre-image) has at most one element y = f (x)
(called the image) in J. In other words, elements of I cannot have more than one
image.

Definition 2.
(Domain of Definition) Let f : I → J, the set of definition of f , denoted Df , is
the set of elements in I that have exactly one image in J under the function f . It
is written as
f : Df → J

x 7→ f (x)
The notation f : Df → J is read as "f goes from Df to J" and x 7→ f (x) is read
as "x maps to f (x)."
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 Generalities

Definition 1.
Let I and J be two sets in R, generally intervals or a union of intervals. We have

f :I→J

f defines a relation from I (called the domain) to J (called the codomain), where
each element x in I (called the pre-image) has at most one element y = f (x)
(called the image) in J. In other words, elements of I cannot have more than one
image.

Definition 2.
(Domain of Definition) Let f : I → J, the set of definition of f , denoted Df , is
the set of elements in I that have exactly one image in J under the function f . It
is written as
f : Df → J

x 7→ f (x)
The notation f : Df → J is read as "f goes from Df to J" and x 7→ f (x) is read
as "x maps to f (x)."
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 Generalities

Definition 3.
(Graph of a function) Let f : Df → J. The graph of f or the representative
curve of f , denoted Gf , is a subset of the set Df × J given by
n o
Gf = (x, f (x)), x ∈ Df .

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 Some Properties of Real Functions Even and Odd Functions

Definition 4.
Let f : I → J be a real function such that the domain I is symmetric with respect
to the origin, i.e., for all x ∈ I, −x ∈ I. We say that :
• f is even if for all x ∈ I, f (−x) = f (x).
• f is odd if for all x ∈ I, f (−x) = −f (x).

Remark :
• Any constant function on I is even.
• If f is even, its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
• If f is odd, its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.

Example 1.
The functions cos x : R → R and x2x : R → R are even.
The functions sin x : R → R, x2x+1 : R → R, and tan x : R − { π2 + kπ} → R are
odd (k ∈ Z).
If f : I → R is even and g : I → R is odd, then

(f g)(−x) = f (−x)g(−x) = −f g(x).

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 Some Properties of Real Functions Even and Odd Functions

Definition 4.
Let f : I → J be a real function such that the domain I is symmetric with respect
to the origin, i.e., for all x ∈ I, −x ∈ I. We say that :
• f is even if for all x ∈ I, f (−x) = f (x).
• f is odd if for all x ∈ I, f (−x) = −f (x).

Remark :
• Any constant function on I is even.
• If f is even, its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
• If f is odd, its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.

Example 1.
The functions cos x : R → R and x2x : R → R are even.
The functions sin x : R → R, x2x+1 : R → R, and tan x : R − { π2 + kπ} → R are
odd (k ∈ Z).
If f : I → R is even and g : I → R is odd, then

(f g)(−x) = f (−x)g(−x) = −f g(x).

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 Some Properties of Real Functions Even and Odd Functions

Definition 4.
Let f : I → J be a real function such that the domain I is symmetric with respect
to the origin, i.e., for all x ∈ I, −x ∈ I. We say that :
• f is even if for all x ∈ I, f (−x) = f (x).
• f is odd if for all x ∈ I, f (−x) = −f (x).

Remark :
• Any constant function on I is even.
• If f is even, its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
• If f is odd, its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.

Example 1.
The functions cos x : R → R and x2x : R → R are even.
The functions sin x : R → R, x2x+1 : R → R, and tan x : R − { π2 + kπ} → R are
odd (k ∈ Z).
If f : I → R is even and g : I → R is odd, then

(f g)(−x) = f (−x)g(−x) = −f g(x).

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 Some Properties of Real Functions Even and Odd Functions

Definition 4.
Let f : I → J be a real function such that the domain I is symmetric with respect
to the origin, i.e., for all x ∈ I, −x ∈ I. We say that :
• f is even if for all x ∈ I, f (−x) = f (x).
• f is odd if for all x ∈ I, f (−x) = −f (x).

Remark :
• Any constant function on I is even.
• If f is even, its graph is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
• If f is odd, its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin.

Example 1.
The functions cos x : R → R and x2x : R → R are even.
The functions sin x : R → R, x2x+1 : R → R, and tan x : R − { π2 + kπ} → R are
odd (k ∈ Z).
If f : I → R is even and g : I → R is odd, then

(f g)(−x) = f (−x)g(−x) = −f g(x).

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 Some Properties of Real Functions Periodic Functions

Definition 5.
Let f : I → R be a real function. Let T ∈ R∗+ such that for all x ∈ I, x + T ∈ I.
f is called T -periodic if for all x ∈ I, f (x + T ) = f (x).

Remark
If f has periods T and T 0 , then f has period nT for all n ∈ N∗ and period T + T 0 .

Example 2. Study the periodicity of the functions f (x) = sin2 x, f (x) = sin( 23 x),
and f (x) = x − bxRf loor. We have :
1 − cos(2x)
• sin2 (x) =
2
since cos is 2π-periodic, then sin2 x is π-periodic.
2 2 2
• sin( x) = sin( x + 2π)) = sin( (x + 3π)) = f (x + 3π).
3 3 3
Thus, f is 3π-periodic.
• f (x + 1) = x + 1 − bx + 1Rf loor = x + 1 − bxRf loor − 1 = f (x).
So, f is 1-periodic.
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 Some Properties of Real Functions Periodic Functions

Definition 5.
Let f : I → R be a real function. Let T ∈ R∗+ such that for all x ∈ I, x + T ∈ I.
f is called T -periodic if for all x ∈ I, f (x + T ) = f (x).

Remark
If f has periods T and T 0 , then f has period nT for all n ∈ N∗ and period T + T 0 .

Example 2. Study the periodicity of the functions f (x) = sin2 x, f (x) = sin( 23 x),
and f (x) = x − bxRf loor. We have :
1 − cos(2x)
• sin2 (x) =
2
since cos is 2π-periodic, then sin2 x is π-periodic.
2 2 2
• sin( x) = sin( x + 2π)) = sin( (x + 3π)) = f (x + 3π).
3 3 3
Thus, f is 3π-periodic.
• f (x + 1) = x + 1 − bx + 1Rf loor = x + 1 − bxRf loor − 1 = f (x).
So, f is 1-periodic.
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 Some Properties of Real Functions Periodic Functions

Definition 5.
Let f : I → R be a real function. Let T ∈ R∗+ such that for all x ∈ I, x + T ∈ I.
f is called T -periodic if for all x ∈ I, f (x + T ) = f (x).

Remark
If f has periods T and T 0 , then f has period nT for all n ∈ N∗ and period T + T 0 .

Example 2. Study the periodicity of the functions f (x) = sin2 x, f (x) = sin( 23 x),
and f (x) = x − bxRf loor. We have :
1 − cos(2x)
• sin2 (x) =
2
since cos is 2π-periodic, then sin2 x is π-periodic.
2 2 2
• sin( x) = sin( x + 2π)) = sin( (x + 3π)) = f (x + 3π).
3 3 3
Thus, f is 3π-periodic.
• f (x + 1) = x + 1 − bx + 1Rf loor = x + 1 − bxRf loor − 1 = f (x).
So, f is 1-periodic.
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 Some Properties of Real Functions Composition of Functions

Definition 6.
Let f : I → R and g : J → R be two functions such that f (I) ⊂ J. The
composite function of f and g, denoted g ◦ f (read as g circle f ), is defined for all
x ∈ I by
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)).
It has the form
g◦f : I → J → R
x 7 → f (x) 7→ g(f (x)).

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 Some Properties of Real Functions Order Relation

Definition 7.
Let f, g, h : I → R be three real functions. We have

• f ≤ g ⇔ ∀x ∈ I f (x) ≤ g(x)

•f ≤ g andg ≤ h =⇒ f ≤ h (transitivity)

Definition 8.
(absolute value of a real function) Let f : I → R. We define |f | : I → R as

f (x) if f (x) ≥ 0
|f (x)| =
−f (x) if f (x) ≤ 0

It can also be defined as

|f | = sup(f, −f ).

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 Some Properties of Real Functions Bounded Function, Upper Bounded, Lower Bounded

Definition 9.
Let f : I → R be a real function. f is called :
• upper-bounded if and only if there exists M ∈ R such that for every x ∈ I,
f (x) ≤ M .
• lower-bounded if and only if there exists m ∈ R such that for every x ∈ I,
f (x) ≥ m.
• bounded if and only if there exist M, m ∈ R such that for every x ∈ I,
m ≤ f (x) ≤ M .

Remark
f is called bounded if and only if |f | is upper-bounded.

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 Some Properties of Real Functions Monotony of Functions

Definition 10.
Let f : I → R be a function. We say that :
1. f is increasing if and only if ∀(x1 , x2 ) ∈ I 2 , x1 ≤ x2 =⇒ f (x1 ) ≤ f (x2 ).
2. f is decreasing if and only if ∀(x1 , x2 ) ∈ I 2 , x1 ≤ x2 =⇒ f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ).
3. f is strictly increasing if and only if ∀(x1 , x2 ) ∈ I 2 , x1 < x2 =⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ).
4. f is strictly decreasing if and only if ∀(x1 , x2 ) ∈ I 2 ,
x1 < x2 =⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).
5. f is monotonic if and only if f is increasing or decreasing.
6. f is strictly monotonic if and only if f is strictly increasing or strictly decreasing.

Remark :
Every monotonic function is injective. Be cautious ! The converse is not true.

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 Some Properties of Real Functions Monotony of Functions

Example 3. Consider the function f : R → R defined by


 x if (x 6= −1 and x 6= 1)
f (x) = 1 if x = −1
−1 if x = 1


f is injective but not monotonic.

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 Some Properties of Real Functions Monotony of Functions

Proposition 1.
Let f, g : I → R be two real functions. We have :
• If f is increasing, then −f is decreasing.
• If f is increasing and λ ∈ R+ , then λf is increasing.
• If f is increasing and λ ∈ R− , then λf is decreasing.
• If f and g are increasing, then f + g is also increasing.
• If f and g are increasing and f g ≥ 0, then f g is also increasing.
• If f and g are increasing or decreasing, then f ◦ g is increasing.
• If f is increasing and g is decreasing, then f ◦ g is decreasing.

Remark.
If f is increasing and g is decreasing, we cannot conclude anything about f + g
because if we take f : R → R f (x) = x3 , which is increasing, and g : R → R
g(x) = −x, which is decreasing, then (f + g)(x) = x3 − x is neither increasing
nor decreasing.

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 Limits Function Defined in the Neighborhood of a Point

Definition 11(Neighborhood of a Point)

Let V be a subset of R and x0 ∈ R. We say that :
• V is a neighborhood of x0 if and only if there exists ε > 0 such that
]x0 − ε, x0 + ε[⊂ V .
• V is a neighborhood of +∞ if and only if there exists A ∈ R such that
]A, +∞[⊂ V .
• V is a neighborhood of −∞ if and only if there exists A ∈ R such that
] − ∞, A[⊂ V .
We denote the set of neighborhoods of x0 by V(x0 ).

Definition 12.
We say that the function f : Df → R is defined in the neighborhood of a point
x0 ∈ R if and only if there exists a neighborhood V of x0 such that V ⊂ Df . We
write f ∈ V(x0 ).

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 Limits Finite Limit of f

Definition 13.
Let x0 ∈ R (i.e., x ∈ R ∪ {−∞, +∞}). Let f : Df → R be a function defined in
the neighborhood of x0 except possibly at x0 .
We say that f has a finite limit l ∈ R at x0 if and only if :
x0 ∈ R : We say that f has a limit l ∈ R at x0 if and only if

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df , |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ |f (x) − l| ≤ ε.

x0 = +∞ : We say that f has a limit l ∈ R at +∞ if and only if

∀ε > 0, ∃A ∈ R, ∀x ∈ Df , x ≥ A =⇒ |f (x) − l| ≤ ε.

x0 = −∞ : We say that f has a limit l ∈ R at −∞ if and only if

∀ε > 0, ∃A ∈ R, ∀x ∈ Df , x ≤ A =⇒ |f (x) − l| ≤ ε.

We write lim f (x) = l or f (x) −→ l.

xRightarrowx0 xRightarrowx0

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 Limits Finite Limit of f

Remark.
We can also use strict inequalities in the above definition.
lim f (x) = l means that f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to l (in a
xRightarrowx0
neighborhood of l as small as we want) provided x is close enough to x0 (in a
neighborhood of x0 as small as we want).

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 Limits Finite Limit of f

Example 4. 1. Show, using the definition of limit, that lim x2 = 0. We

xRightarrow0
want to show that the proposition : For every ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
for all x ∈ Df , |x| ≤ δ =⇒ |x2 | ≤ ε, is true. That is, find a δ > 0 such that
|x| ≤ δ =⇒ |x2 | ≤ ε.
We have √
|x2 | ≤ ε ⇔ |x|2 ≤ ε ⇔ |x| ≤ ε.
√
This√means that the inequality |x2 | ≤ ε is satisfied if |x| ≤ ε, so we can take
δ = ε > 0. √ 2. Let x0 > 0, show, using the definition of limit, that
√
lim x = x0 . We have
xRightarrowx0

√ √ x − x0
x− x0 = √ √ .
x + x0
√ √ √
Since x+ x0 > x0 , then
√ √ |x − x0 | |x − x0 |
| x − x0 | = √ √ < √ .
x + x0 x0
√ √ |x − x0 | √
The inequality | x − x0 | ≤ ε is satisfied if √ ≤ ε ⇔ |x − x0 | ≤ x0 ε. To
√ x0
√ √
show lim x = x0 , it suffices to take δ = x0 ε > 0.
xRightarrowx0
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 Limits Finite Limit of f

Example 4. 1. Show, using the definition of limit, that lim x2 = 0. We

xRightarrow0
want to show that the proposition : For every ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
for all x ∈ Df , |x| ≤ δ =⇒ |x2 | ≤ ε, is true. That is, find a δ > 0 such that
|x| ≤ δ =⇒ |x2 | ≤ ε.
We have √
|x2 | ≤ ε ⇔ |x|2 ≤ ε ⇔ |x| ≤ ε.
√
This√means that the inequality |x2 | ≤ ε is satisfied if |x| ≤ ε, so we can take
δ = ε > 0. √ 2. Let x0 > 0, show, using the definition of limit, that
√
lim x = x0 . We have
xRightarrowx0

√ √ x − x0
x− x0 = √ √ .
x + x0
√ √ √
Since x+ x0 > x0 , then
√ √ |x − x0 | |x − x0 |
| x − x0 | = √ √ < √ .
x + x0 x0
√ √ |x − x0 | √
The inequality | x − x0 | ≤ ε is satisfied if √ ≤ ε ⇔ |x − x0 | ≤ x0 ε. To
√ x0
√ √
show lim x = x0 , it suffices to take δ = x0 ε > 0.
xRightarrowx0
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 Limits Finite Limit of f

Example 4. 1. Show, using the definition of limit, that lim x2 = 0. We

xRightarrow0
want to show that the proposition : For every ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
for all x ∈ Df , |x| ≤ δ =⇒ |x2 | ≤ ε, is true. That is, find a δ > 0 such that
|x| ≤ δ =⇒ |x2 | ≤ ε.
We have √
|x2 | ≤ ε ⇔ |x|2 ≤ ε ⇔ |x| ≤ ε.
√
This√means that the inequality |x2 | ≤ ε is satisfied if |x| ≤ ε, so we can take
δ = ε > 0. √ 2. Let x0 > 0, show, using the definition of limit, that
√
lim x = x0 . We have
xRightarrowx0

√ √ x − x0
x− x0 = √ √ .
x + x0
√ √ √
Since x+ x0 > x0 , then
√ √ |x − x0 | |x − x0 |
| x − x0 | = √ √ < √ .
x + x0 x0
√ √ |x − x0 | √
The inequality | x − x0 | ≤ ε is satisfied if √ ≤ ε ⇔ |x − x0 | ≤ x0 ε. To
√ x0
√ √
show lim x = x0 , it suffices to take δ = x0 ε > 0.
xRightarrowx0
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 Limits Finite Limit of f

Example 4. 1. Show, using the definition of limit, that lim x2 = 0. We

xRightarrow0
want to show that the proposition : For every ε > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that
for all x ∈ Df , |x| ≤ δ =⇒ |x2 | ≤ ε, is true. That is, find a δ > 0 such that
|x| ≤ δ =⇒ |x2 | ≤ ε.
We have √
|x2 | ≤ ε ⇔ |x|2 ≤ ε ⇔ |x| ≤ ε.
√
This√means that the inequality |x2 | ≤ ε is satisfied if |x| ≤ ε, so we can take
δ = ε > 0. √ 2. Let x0 > 0, show, using the definition of limit, that
√
lim x = x0 . We have
xRightarrowx0

√ √ x − x0
x− x0 = √ √ .
x + x0
√ √ √
Since x+ x0 > x0 , then
√ √ |x − x0 | |x − x0 |
| x − x0 | = √ √ < √ .
x + x0 x0
√ √ |x − x0 | √
The inequality | x − x0 | ≤ ε is satisfied if √ ≤ ε ⇔ |x − x0 | ≤ x0 ε. To
√ x0
√ √
show lim x = x0 , it suffices to take δ = x0 ε > 0.
xRightarrowx0
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 Limits Finite Limit of f

1
3. Show that lim = 0.
x→−∞ x
We want to show that : For every ε > 0, there exists A ∈ R such that for all
x ∈ R∗ , x ≤ A =⇒ | x1 | ≤ ε. We have

1 1 1 1
| |= ≤ ε ⇔ −x ≥ ⇔ x ≤ − .
x −x ε ε

Thus, we can take A = − 1ε .

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 Limits Infinite Limit of f

Definition 14.
Let x0 ∈ R. Let f : Df → R be a function defined in the neighborhood of x0
except possibly at x0 .
We say that f tends to +∞ as x approaches x0 if and only if :
x0 ∈ R : We say that f tends to +∞ as a limit at x0 if and only if

∀B ∈ R, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df , |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ f (x) ≥ B.

x0 = +∞ : We say that f tends to +∞ as a limit at +∞ if and only if

∀B ∈ R, ∃A ∈ R, ∀x ∈ Df , x ≥ A =⇒ f (x) ≥ B.

x0 = −∞ : We say that f tends to +∞ as a limit at −∞ if and only if

∀B ∈ R, ∃A ∈ R, ∀x ∈ Df , x ≤ A =⇒ f (x) ≥ B.

We write lim f (x) = +∞ or f (x) −→ +∞.

xRightarrowx0 xRightarrowx0

Similarly, we can define the limit −∞ as follows : For every B ∈ R, there exists
δ > 0 such that for all x ∈ Df , |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ f (x) ≤ B.
We write lim f (x) = −∞ or f (x) −→ −∞. 18 / 92
xRightarrowx xRightarrowx
 Limits Infinite Limit of f

Remark : We also define the limit −∞ as follows :

x0 ∈ R : We say that f tends to −∞ as a limit at x0 if and only if

∀B ∈ R, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df , |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ f (x) ≤ B.

x0 = +∞ : We say that f tends to −∞ as a limit at +∞ if and only if

∀B ∈ R, ∃A ∈ R, ∀x ∈ Df , x ≥ A =⇒ f (x) ≤ B.

x0 = −∞ : We say that f tends to −∞ as a limit at −∞ if and only if

∀B ∈ R, ∃A ∈ R, ∀x ∈ Df , x ≤ A =⇒ f (x) ≤ B.

We write lim f (x) = −∞ or f (x) −→ −∞.

xRightarrowx0 xRightarrowx0

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 Limits Infinite Limit of f

Example 5. √
1-Show that lim x = +∞.
xRightarrow+∞
We want to show that
√
∀B > 0, ∃A ∈ R, ∀x ∈ [0, +∞[, x ≥ A =⇒ x ≥ B.
√
We have x ≥ B is satisfied if x ≥ B 2 , so it suffices to take A = B 2 .

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 Limits Left and Right Limits

Definition 15.
Let V be a subset of R, and x0 ∈ R. We say that
• V is a right neighborhood of x0 if there exists ε > 0 such that [x0 , x0 + ε] ⊂ V .
• V is a left neighborhood of x0 if there exists ε > 0 such that [x0 − ε, x0 ] ⊂ V .

Definition 16.
• Let f : Df → R be a function defined in a right neighborhood of x0 ∈ R except
possibly at x0 . We say that f has a right-hand limit of l at x0 if and only if

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df , |x − x0 | ≤ δ and x > x0 =⇒ |f (x) − l| ≤ ε.

We write lim f (x) or lim f (x)

x→x+
0
>
x→x0
• Let f : Df → R be a function defined in a left neighborhood of x0 ∈ R except
possibly at x0 . We say that f has a left-hand limit of l at x0 if and only if

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ Df , |x − x0 | ≤ δ and x < x0 =⇒ |f (x) − l| ≤ ε.

We write lim− f (x) or lim f (x)

<
x→x0 x→x0

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 Limits Left and Right Limits

Proposition 2.
Let f be a function defined on V(x0 )\{x0 }. f has a limit l ∈ R at x0 if and only
if it has a right-hand limit and a left-hand limit at x0 , i.e.,

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = l.

x→x+
0 x→x−
0

q
1
Example 6. Compute, if it exists, lim x 1 + x2 .We have
x→0
√
r
1 x 2 2
p  2 x2 + 1 if x > 0
x 1+ 2 = x +1= √
x |x|  2 2
− x + 1 if x < 0
q √
Since lim+ x 1 + x12 = lim+ 2 x2 + 1 = 1 and
x→0 x→0
q
1
√ q
1
lim− x 1 + x2 = lim+ − 2 x2 + 1 = −1, then lim x 1 + x2 does not exist.
x→0 x→0 x→0

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 Limits Left and Right Limits

Proposition 2.
Let f be a function defined on V(x0 )\{x0 }. f has a limit l ∈ R at x0 if and only
if it has a right-hand limit and a left-hand limit at x0 , i.e.,

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = l.

x→x+
0 x→x−
0

q
1
Example 6. Compute, if it exists, lim x 1 + x2 .We have
x→0
√
r
1 x 2 2
p  2 x2 + 1 if x > 0
x 1+ 2 = x +1= √
x |x|  2 2
− x + 1 if x < 0
q √
Since lim+ x 1 + x12 = lim+ 2 x2 + 1 = 1 and
x→0 x→0
q
1
√ q
1
lim− x 1 + x2 = lim+ − 2 x2 + 1 = −1, then lim x 1 + x2 does not exist.
x→0 x→0 x→0

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 Limits Left and Right Limits

Proposition 3(Gendarme’s Theorem for Functions) :

Let f , g, and h be three functions defined in the neighborhood of x0 except
possibly at x0 such that
f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x).
Assume that lim f (x) and lim h(x) exist and are equal. Then lim g(x) exists
x→x0 x→x0 x→x0
and
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = lim h(x).
x→x0 x→x0 x→x0

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 Limits Left and Right Limits


1
Example 7. Compute the limit lim (x − 1) sin . We have
x→1 x2 − 1
   
1 1
−1 ≤ sin ≤ 1 ⇔ −(x − 1) ≤ sin ≤ (x + 1) (x > 0)
x2 − 1 x2 − 1

Since
lim (−(x − 1)) = lim+ (x − 1) = 0,
x→1+ x→1

then by the sandwich theorem, we deduce that

 
1
lim+ (x − 1) sin =0
x→1 x2 − 1
 
1
We do the same for the left limit of 1 ; we find lim (x − 1) sin 2
= 0.
x→1− x −1
Therefore,  
1
lim (x − 1) sin = 0.
x→1 x2 − 1

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 Limits Left and Right Limits

Remark :
• If lim h(x) = +∞ then lim g(x) = +∞.
x→x0 x→x0
• If lim f (x) = −∞ then lim g(x) = −∞.
x→x0 x→x0

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 Limits Using Sequences to Express a Function Limit

Theorem 1.
Let f be a function defined on V(x0 )\{x0 }. We say that lim f (x) exists and is
x→x0
equal to l ∈ R if and only if for any sequence (xn ) (xn 6= 0) converging to x0 , the
sequence f (xn ) converges to l.

We can derive two corollaries from this theorem that are used to show that a
function limit does not exist.
Corollary 1.
Let f be a function defined on V(x0 )\{x0 }. If there exists a sequence (xn )
converging to x0 (xn 6= 0), and f (xn ) diverges, then lim f (x) does not exist.
x→x0

Corollary 2.
Let f be a function defined on V(x0 )\{x0 }. If there exist two sequences (xn ) and
(yn ) such that xn 6= x0 and yn 6= y0 converging to x0 , and f (xn ) and f (yn )
converge but to two different limits, then lim f (x) does not exist.
x→x0

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 Limits Using Sequences to Express a Function Limit

Theorem 1.
Let f be a function defined on V(x0 )\{x0 }. We say that lim f (x) exists and is
x→x0
equal to l ∈ R if and only if for any sequence (xn ) (xn 6= 0) converging to x0 , the
sequence f (xn ) converges to l.

We can derive two corollaries from this theorem that are used to show that a
function limit does not exist.
Corollary 1.
Let f be a function defined on V(x0 )\{x0 }. If there exists a sequence (xn )
converging to x0 (xn 6= 0), and f (xn ) diverges, then lim f (x) does not exist.
x→x0

Corollary 2.
Let f be a function defined on V(x0 )\{x0 }. If there exist two sequences (xn ) and
(yn ) such that xn 6= x0 and yn 6= y0 converging to x0 , and f (xn ) and f (yn )
converge but to two different limits, then lim f (x) does not exist.
x→x0

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 Limits Using Sequences to Express a Function Limit

Theorem 1.
Let f be a function defined on V(x0 )\{x0 }. We say that lim f (x) exists and is
x→x0
equal to l ∈ R if and only if for any sequence (xn ) (xn 6= 0) converging to x0 , the
sequence f (xn ) converges to l.

We can derive two corollaries from this theorem that are used to show that a
function limit does not exist.
Corollary 1.
Let f be a function defined on V(x0 )\{x0 }. If there exists a sequence (xn )
converging to x0 (xn 6= 0), and f (xn ) diverges, then lim f (x) does not exist.
x→x0

Corollary 2.
Let f be a function defined on V(x0 )\{x0 }. If there exist two sequences (xn ) and
(yn ) such that xn 6= x0 and yn 6= y0 converging to x0 , and f (xn ) and f (yn )
converge but to two different limits, then lim f (x) does not exist.
x→x0

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 Limits Using Sequences to Express a Function Limit

1


Example 8. Show that lim cos x does not exist.
x→0
1
Consider the sequence xn = 2πn ; we have ∀n ≥ 1, x0 6= 0 and lim xn = 0 such
n→∞
that  
1
f (xn ) = cos = cos(2πn) = 1 −→ 1
xn n→∞

1
Now consider yn = (2n+1)π ; we have ∀n ≥ 1, y0 6= 0 and lim yn = 0 such that
n→∞
 
1
f (yn ) = cos = cos((2n + 1)π) = −1 −→ −1
yn n→∞

1


According to the second corollary, lim cos x does not exist.
x→0

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 Limits Using Sequences to Express a Function Limit

Example 9. Show that lim sin(cos x) does not exist.

x→+∞
Take the sequences xn = 2nπ → +∞ and yn = (2n + 1)π → +∞ such that

f (xn ) = sin(cos xn ) = sin(cos(2nπ)) → sin 1

and
f (yn ) = sin(cos yn ) = sin(cos((2n + 1)π)) → 0
As sin 1 6= 0, lim cos x1 does not exist.


x→0

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 Limits Using Sequences to Express a Function Limit

√ √
x− 3x
Example 10. Calculate lim √ √ = 00 (F.I).
x→1 4 x3 − 3 x2
We perform the change of variable
√ x = y 12 (when x goes
√ 1, y goes to 1). We have
√ 1 √ 1 4 3 3 2
x = x = y , x = x = y , x = x = y and x = x 3 = y 8 . We get the
2 6 3 3 4 3 4 9 2

limit √ √
x− 3x y6 − y4
lim √ √ = lim 9 =
4
x→1 x3 − 3
x2 y→1 y − y 8

y2 − 1 (y − 1)(y + 1) y+1
lim = lim = lim = 2.
y→1 y 5 − y 4 y→1 y 4 (y − 1) y→1 y 4

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 Continuity

Definition 17.
Let f : I → R be a function defined in the neighborhood of x0 . f is said to be
continuous at the point x0 if

lim f (x) = f (x0 )

x→x0

which means

∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ I; |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (x0 )| ≤ ε

If f is not continuous at x0 , we say it is discontinuous at x0 .

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 Continuity

Proposition
Let f : I → R be a function defined in the neighborhood of x0 . f is continuous at
x0 if and only if for every sequence (xn ) such that xn 6= 0 and lim xn = x0 , the
sequence of images f (xn ) converges to f (x0 ).

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 Continuity Continuity from the Left and Right

Definition 18.
Let f be a function defined in the neighborhood of x0 . f is said to be
• continuous from the left of x0 if and only if lim− f (x) = f (x0 ).
x→x0
• continuous from the right of x0 if and only if lim+ f (x) = f (x0 ).
x→x0
• continuous at x0 if and only if f is continuous from the left and right of x0 , i.e.,
lim+ f (x) = lim− f (x) = f (x0 ).
x→x0 x→x0

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 Continuity Continuity from the Left and Right

Example 11.
• The function E(x) is continuous from the right at every point in R but is
discontinuous at points k ∈ Z.
1
• Let g(x) = e x . We have lim− g(x) = 0 and lim+ g(x) = +∞, so g is
x→x0 x→x0
discontinuous at 0.

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 Continuity Continuity on an Interval

Definition 19.
Let f : I → R be a function. f is said to be continuous on the interval I if and
only if f is continuous at every point in I.
Intuitively, "A function is continuous on an interval if and only if its graph can be
drawn without lifting the hand".
We express this definition with quantifiers :

∀x0 ∈ I, ∀ε > 0, ∃δ > 0, ∀x ∈ I, |x − x0 | ≤ δ =⇒ |f (x) − f (x0 )| ≤ ε.

We denote C 0 (I) or C(I) as the set of functions continuous on I.

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 Continuity Continuity on an Interval

Example 12.
The constant function is continuous on R.
Functions x 7→ xn (n ∈ N), x 7→ sin x, x 7→ cos x, x 7→ ex are continuous on
R.

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 Continuity Operations on Continuous Functions

Propositions 7.
Let f, g : I → R be two functions continuous at x0 ∈ I. Then,
• Linearity : For any α, β ∈ R, the function αf + βg is continuous at x0 .
• Product : The function f g is continuous on I.
• Inverse : If g does not vanish on I, then the function g1 is continuous at x0 .
f
• Quotient : If g does not vanish on I, then the function g is continuous at x0 .

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 Continuity Operations on Continuous Functions

Example 13.
• A polynomial function is continuous on R.
P (x)
• Any rational function of the form f (x) = Q(x) where P and Q are polynomials
is continuous on the interval where Q does not vanish.
• Let f, g : I → R be two continuous functions. We define
h(x) = max(f (x), g(x)) and k(x) = min(f (x), g(x)), both of which are also
continuous on I.
Study the continuity of the following function on its domain of definition


 x2 if 0 < x ≤ 1


f (x) = bxc − x if 1 < x ≤ 2



bxc − x + 1 if 2 < x ≤ 3


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 Continuity Operations on Continuous Functions

Proposition 8.
Let f : I → R and g : J → R be two functions with f (I) ⊂ J. If f is continuous
at x0 ∈ I and g is continuous at f (x0 ), then the function g(f (x)) is continuous at
x0 .

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 Continuity Extension by continuity

Definition 20.
Let I be an interval in R and x0 ∈ I (V(x0 ) ⊂ I). Let f : I \ {x0 } → R. If f has
a finite limit l ∈ R at x0 we say then that extendable by continuity on x0 . We
then define the function f˜ : I → R as follows :

f (x) if x 6= x0
(
f˜(x)
l if x = x0 .

which is the extension of f in I. The function f˜ is continuous on I.

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 Continuity Extension by continuity

sin x
Example 14. • As we have limx→0 = 1 (exists and finite) then the function
x
sin x
f (x) = is extendable by continuity at 0, and we have
x
 sin x if x ∈ R?

˜
f (x) = x
1 if x=0


1
• The function g(x) = e− x2 is extendable by continuity at 0, and we have

if x ∈ R?
(
g(x)
g̃(x) =
0 if x=0

This function is continuous on R.

• Can the following function be extended over R

x3 − 2x2 − x + 2
f (x) =
1 − |x|

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 Continuity Intermediate Value Theorems (IVT)

Theorem 2.
Let f : [a, b] → R be a function. If
• f is continuous on [a, b].
• f (a)f (b) ≤ 0
Then there exists a real number c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = 0.

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 Continuity Intermediate Value Theorems (IVT)

Proof :
• If f (a)f (b) = 0, then c = a or c = b.
• If f (a)f (b) < 0, i.e., f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs.
Let c = a+b2 (center of the interval [a, b]), if f (c) 6= 0, then it has the same
sign as f (a) or f (b).
In the first case, we consider the interval
a+b
[a1 , b1 ] = [ , b]
2
In the second case, we consider the interval
a+b
[a1 , b1 ] = [a, ]
2
In both cases, the size of the interval [a1 , b1 ] is b−a 2 .
We repeat this process, obtaining the interval [a2 , b2 ] of size a+b22 .
Repeating this process n times, we get the interval [an , bn ] of size b−a2n .
The sequences (an ) and (bn ) satisfy the bounds
an ≤ an+1 ≤ bn+1 ≤ bn
such that f (an )f (bn ) ≤ 0. We have (an ) is an increasing sequence and bn is
a decreasing sequence.
Moreover, we have
b−a 42 / 92
 Continuity Intermediate Value Theorems (IVT)

Remark :
• The point c in the intermediate value theorem is not necessarily unique. For
example, consider the function f (x) = x3 − x on the interval [−2, 2], which
satisfies the conditions of the intermediate value theorem. We can factorize it as
f (x) = x(x − 1)(x + 1), and it has three different roots.
• One may even encounter cases where the equation f (x) = 0 has an infinite
number of roots. Consider the function f : [−1, 1] → R

x sin( x1 ) if x 6= 0
 2
f (x) =
0 if x = 0

We have f (x) = 0 ⇔ x2 sin( x1 ) = 0, which has x0 = 0 and xk = 1

kπ (k ∈ Z) as
solutions.

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 Continuity Intermediate Value Theorems (IVT)

Remark :
• The point c in the intermediate value theorem is not necessarily unique. For
example, consider the function f (x) = x3 − x on the interval [−2, 2], which
satisfies the conditions of the intermediate value theorem. We can factorize it as
f (x) = x(x − 1)(x + 1), and it has three different roots.
• One may even encounter cases where the equation f (x) = 0 has an infinite
number of roots. Consider the function f : [−1, 1] → R

x sin( x1 ) if x 6= 0
 2
f (x) =
0 if x = 0

We have f (x) = 0 ⇔ x2 sin( x1 ) = 0, which has x0 = 0 and xk = 1

kπ (k ∈ Z) as
solutions.

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 Continuity Intermediate Value Theorems (IVT)

Remark :
• The point c in the intermediate value theorem is not necessarily unique. For
example, consider the function f (x) = x3 − x on the interval [−2, 2], which
satisfies the conditions of the intermediate value theorem. We can factorize it as
f (x) = x(x − 1)(x + 1), and it has three different roots.
• One may even encounter cases where the equation f (x) = 0 has an infinite
number of roots. Consider the function f : [−1, 1] → R

x sin( x1 ) if x 6= 0
 2
f (x) =
0 if x = 0

We have f (x) = 0 ⇔ x2 sin( x1 ) = 0, which has x0 = 0 and xk = 1

kπ (k ∈ Z) as
solutions.

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 Continuity Intermediate Value Theorems (IVT)

Corollary 3. Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function. If y0 is between f (a)

and f (b), then there exists c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = y0 .
Proof : Assume that f (a) ≤ f (b). Consider the function g : [a, b] → R defined by
g(x) = f (x) − y0 , as f is continuous, then g is also continuous.
Moreover, we have g(a) = f (a) − y0 ≤ 0 and g(b) = f (b) − y0 ≥ 0. By the IVT,
there exists c ∈ [a, b] such that g(c) = 0 ⇔ f (c) = y0 .

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 Continuity Intermediate Value Theorems (IVT)

Corollary 3. Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function. If y0 is between f (a)

and f (b), then there exists c ∈ [a, b] such that f (c) = y0 .
Proof : Assume that f (a) ≤ f (b). Consider the function g : [a, b] → R defined by
g(x) = f (x) − y0 , as f is continuous, then g is also continuous.
Moreover, we have g(a) = f (a) − y0 ≤ 0 and g(b) = f (b) − y0 ≥ 0. By the IVT,
there exists c ∈ [a, b] such that g(c) = 0 ⇔ f (c) = y0 .

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 Continuity Continuous Function on an Interval

Theorem 3.
The image of an interval I under a continuous function is an interval.

Proof : Let f be a continuous function on the interval I. We want to show that

f (I) is an interval, i.e., for any (y1 , y2 ) ∈ (f (I))2 , we have [y1 , y2 ] ⊂ f (I).
Let (y1 , y2 ) ∈ (f (I))2 , then there exist two elements x1 , x2 ∈ I such that
y1 = f (x1 ) and y2 = f (x2 ). Let y ∈ [y1 , y2 ] (arbitrary), according to the previous
corollary, there exists c ∈ [a, b] such that y = f (c), and thus y ∈ f (I).

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 Continuity Continuous Function on an Interval

Proposition 9.
If f is a strictly monotonic continuous function on an interval I, the following
table gives f (I)

[a,b] [a,b[ ]a,b] ]a,b[

f% [f (a), f (b)] [f (a), lim f (x)[ ] lim f (x), f (b)] ] lim f (x), lim f (x)[
x→b x→a x→a x→b
f& [f (b), f (a)] [f (b), lim f (x)[ ] lim f (x), f (a)] ] lim f (x), lim f (x)[
x→a x→b x→b x→a

Example 15. f : R → R such that f (x) = x2 + x + 1.

1
f (x) : R → R such that f (x) = 2
x +1

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 Continuity Continuous Function on an Interval

Proposition 10.
Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function. Then f is bounded and attains its
bounds.
Which means that f is bounded (m ≤ f (x) ≤ m) and there exist c, d ∈ [a, b] such
that f (c) = m and f (d) = M.

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 Continuity Monotonic Bijection Theorem

Lemma 1. Let f : I → R (I an interval) be a strictly monotonic function. Then

the function f is injective. Proof : Without loss of generality, assume f is strictly
increasing. Let x, y ∈ I such that x 6= y. If x < y, then f (x) < f (y), and if
x > y, then f (x) > f (y) ; in both cases, f (x) 6= f (y). Thus, f is injective.

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 Continuity Monotonic Bijection Theorem

Theorem 4.
Let f : I → R (I an interval) be a continuous and strictly monotonic function.
Denote J = f (I). Then
• f establishes a bijection from the interval I to the interval J.
• The inverse bijection f −1 : J → I is a continuous function on J, strictly
monotonic, and has the same direction as f .

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 Continuity Monotonic Bijection Theorem

Proof :
• According to the previous lemma, f is injective.
• Since J = f (I), f is surjective. Thus, f is bijective.
• Suppose, for example, that f is strictly increasing. Let f −1 : J → I be its inverse
function. We will show that f −1 is also strictly increasing. Take (X, Y ) ∈ J 2 such
that X < Y . Assuming f −1 (Y ) < f −1 (X) leads to a contradiction. Since f is
increasing, f (f −1 (Y )) < f (f −1 (X)), implying Y < X, which is false.

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 Continuity Monotonic Bijection Theorem

Example√ 16. Consider the function f : [2, +∞[→ R defined by

f (x) = x2 − 4x + 8.
Show that the inverse function f −1 : J → I of f exists, specifying the
intervals I and J.
Demonstrate that f −1 is continuous and provide its expression.
Answer
The function f is defined as the composition of two functions (a polynomial
and a square root) that are continuous on [2, +∞[, so f is continuous on this
interval.
√
The functions g(x) = x2 − 4x + 8 and x are strictly increasing on [2, +∞[,
sof is strictly increasing (a composition of two increasing functions).
We have f ([2, +∞[) = [2, +∞[. Thus, the function f : [2, +∞[→ [2, +∞[
establishes a bijection, and therefore, f −1 exists.
According to the monotone bijection theorem, the function
f −1 : [2, +∞[→ [2, +∞[ is continuous and strictly increasing. For
y ∈ [2, +∞[, we have
p p
y = x2 − 4x + 8 =⇒ y 2 = x2 −4x+8 = (x−2)2 +4 =⇒ x = ± y 2 − 4+2.

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 Continuity Monotonic Bijection Theorem

Since x belongs to [2, +∞[, we get

f −1 : [2, +∞[ → [2, +∞[

p
y 7→ y 2 − 4 + 2.

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 Differentiability

Throughout this section, we consider f to be a function defined on I with x0 ∈ I.

Definition
• We say that f is derivable at x0 if the function τx0 , called the average rate of
change of f at x0 defined on I \ {x0 } by

f (x) − f (x0 )
τx0 (x) =
x − x0
has a finite limit at x0 .
df
This limit is called the derivative of f at x0 and is denoted by f 0 (x0 ) or (x0 ).
dx
• We say that f is derivable on I if it is derivable at every point x0 in I. In this
case, the function f 0 : I → R is called the derivative of f .

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 Differentiability

Example 17.
• Consider the function f : R → R defined by

x sin( x1 ) if x 6= 0
(

0 if x = 0

We have
f (x) − f (x0 ) 1
lim τx0 (x) = lim = lim sin( )
x→0 x→0 x − x0 x→0 x
The function sin( x1 ) does not have a limit at 0, so f is not derivable at 0.

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 Differentiability

√
• Consider the function f (x) = x and study the differentiability of f in its
domain. Let x0 ∈ [0, +∞[.
If x0 > 0, we have
√ √
f (x) − f (x0 ) x − x0 1 1
lim τx0 (x) = lim = lim = lim √ = √
x→x0 x→x0 x − x0 x→x0 x − x0 x→x0 x + x0 2 x

If x0 = 0, we have
f (x) − f (0) 1
lim τ0 (x) = lim = lim √ = +∞
x→0 x→0 x x→0 x
√
Conclusion : The function x is derivable on ]0, +∞[.

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 Differentiability

(?)Exercise 13.
For which values of k ∈ Z the functions f and g derivable at x0 = 0

sin(xk ) if x 6= 0 x sin( x1 ) if x 6= 0
( ( k
f (x) = ; g(x) =
0 if x = 0 0 if x = 0

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 Differentiability

Definition (Right and Left Derivative)

Let f : I ∈ R be a function and x0 ∈ I, we say that
• f is derivable to the right of x0 if and only if the average rate of change τx0 has
a finite limit as x approaches x0 from the right, and we denote fd0 (x0 ) as the right
limit of τx0 .
• f is derivable to the left of x0 if and only if the average rate of change τx0 has a
finite limit as x approaches x0 from the left, and we denote fg0 (x0 ) as the left
limit of τx0 .
• f is derivable at the point x0 if and only if it is derivable to the right of x0 and
to the left of x0 , and we have fd0 (x0 ) = fg0 (x0 ).

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 Differentiability

Example 18. Study the differentiability of f (x) = |x| at 0. We have

f is derivable to the right of 0 with fd0 (0) = 1, and f is derivable to the left of 0
with fg0 (0) = −1. Thus, f is not derivable at 0.

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 Differentiability Geometric Interpretation of the Derivative

Let C be the curve representing the function f in an ortho-

normal coordinate system (Ox, Oy) in the plane. Let M0 be
the point (x0 , f (x0 )), and M be the point (x, f (x)) (both M0
and M belong to C). Let Dx be the line connecting the two
f (x) − f (x0 )
points M and M0 with a slope of . Stating that
x − x0
f is derivable at x0 means that as x tends towards x0 , the line
Dx tends towards a line passing through the point (x0 , f (x0 ))
with a slope of f 0 (x0 ). This line is called the tangent to C at
the point M0 . Thus,
If f is derivable at x0 ∈ I, then the curve C has, at the point
M0 (x0 , f (x0 )), a tangent line with the equation

y = f 0 (x0 )(x − x0 ) + f (x0 ).

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 Differentiability Geometric Interpretation of the Derivative

Remark
• The tangent at M0 (x0 , f (x0 )) is horizontal if and only if f 0 (x0 ) = 0.
• If f is continuous at x0 but not derivable at this point such that the rate of
change τx0 tends to +∞ or −∞, then the graph of f has a vertical tangent.
• If f is derivable to the left of x0 (respectively to the right of x0 ), then the graph
of f has a left-hand (respectively right-hand) semi-tangent.

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 Differentiability Properties of the Derivative

Proposition 11.
If f is derivable in x0 , then it is continuous in x0 .

Proof f is derivable in x0 then the function τx0 is extendable by continuity in x0

by f 0 (x0 ). We have
f (x) − f (x0 ) = τx0 (x)(x − x0 )
By a limit transition, we find lim f (x) = f (x0 ), thus f is continuous in x0 .
x→x0
Remark
• Attention ! The converse is false. A function can be continuous at x0 without
being derivable at this point. If we take, for example, the function x 7→ |x| which
is continuous at 0 and not derivable at this point.
• If f is discontinuous at x0 then it is not derivable at this point.

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 Differentiability Properties of the Derivative

Example We consider the function x 7→ E(x)

Isn’t continuous at the points k ∈ Z, so it is not derivable at these points.
Has a right derivative null at the points k ∈ Z (in the neighborhood of k it
coincides with a constant).
Does not have a left derivative at k ∈ Z because it is not continuous to the
left of this point.

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 Differentiability Algebraic Operations on derivable Functions

Proposition 12.
Let f and g be two functions defined on I and derivable at a point x0 ∈ I. Then
For any α, β ∈ R, the function αf + βg is derivable at x0 , and
(αf + βg)0 (x0 ) = αf 0 (x0 ) + βg 0 (x0 )

The function f g is derivable at x0 , and

(f g)0 (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 )g(x0 ) + f (x0 )g 0 (x0 )

f
If g(x0 ) 6= 0, then the function is derivable at x0 , and
g
 0
f f 0 (x0 )g(x0 ) − f (x0 )g 0 (x0 )
(x0 ) =
g g 2 (x0 )
1
In particular, is derivable at x0 , and
g
 0
1 −g 0 (x0 )
(x0 ) = 2
g g (x0 )

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 Differentiability Algebraic Operations on derivable Functions

Proof We will demonstrate only the second property. We calculate

 
(f g)(x) − (f g)(x0 ) f (x) − f (x0 ) g(x) − g(x0 )
lim = lim g(x) + f (x0 )
x→x0 x − x0 x→x0 x − x0 x − x0

= f 0 (x0 )g(x0 ) + f (x0 )g 0 (x0 ).

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 Differentiability Derivative of the Composition of Two Functions

Proposition 13.
Let f : I → R and g : J → R be two functions such that f (x0 ) ∈ J. Suppose that
• f is derivable at the point x0 ∈ I.
• g is derivable at the point f (x0 ) ∈ J.
Then the function g ◦ f is derivable at the point x0 , and

(g ◦ f )0 (x0 ) = f 0 (x0 ) × g 0 (f (x0 )).

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 Differentiability Derivative of the Composition of Two Functions

Proof Let φ be the function defined for y ∈ f (I) by

 g(y) − g(f (x0 )) if x 6= f (x )


0
φ(y) = y − f (x0 )
g 0 (f (x0 )) if x = f (x0 )


As
g(y) − g(f (x0 ))
lim = g 0 (f (x0 )) = φ(f (x0 )) ( since g is derivable at f (x0 ))
y→f (x0 ) y − f (x0 )

then φ is continuous at f (x0 ). Now, we calculate the limit of the incremental ratio

g(f (x)) − g(f (x0 )) g(f (x)) − g(f (x0 )) f (x) − f (x0 )
lim = lim ×
x→x0 x − x0 x→x0 f (x) − f (x0 ) x − x0
f (x) − f (x0 )
= lim φ(f (x)) ×
x→x0 x − x0
= g 0 (f (x0 )) × f 0 (x0 ).

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 Differentiability Derivative of the Composition of Two Functions

Example Determine the domain of definition of the function f (x) = (1 + x)x and
give its derivative.
We write f in the form f (x) = ex ln(1+x) , which is defined on ] − 1, +∞[. We have
x
f 0 (x) = (x ln(1 + x))0 ex ln(1+x) = (ln(1 + x) + )(1 + x)x .
1+x

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 Differentiability Derivation of the Inverse Bijection

Proposition 14.
Let f : I → J be a function that is continuous, strictly monotonic, and derivable
at the point x0 ∈ I such that f (I) = J.
The function f −1 is derivable at the point y0 = f (x0 ) if and only if f 0 (x0 ) 6= 0,
and in that case, we have
1
(f −1 )0 (y0 ) = 0
f (x0 )

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 Differentiability Derivation of the Inverse Bijection

Proof By the monotone bijection theorem, f −1 exists and is continuous on J.

Now, let’s show that it is derivable. For y0 ∈ J, we have

f −1 (y) − f −1 (y0 ) 1
lim = lim f (f −1 (y))−f (f −1 (y0 ))
y→y0 y − y0 y→y0
f −1 (y)−f −1 (y0 )

Since f is derivable at x0 = f −1 (y0 ) and f 0 (x0 ) 6= 0, we obtain

f −1 (y) − f −1 (y0 ) 1
lim = 0 −1
y→y0 y − y0 f (f (y0 ))

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 Differentiability Derivation of the Inverse Bijection

Example
I-Consider f : R → R defined by f (x) = x3 + x − 2.
Show that f −1 exists and then calculate (f −1 )0 (0).
The function f is the sum of two elementary functions that are continuous and
strictly increasing on R (x3 and x − 2), so f is continuous and strictly increasing
on R. Moreover, f (R) = R, thus f is a bijection.
Since f (1) = 0, we calculate
1 1
(f −1 )0 (0) = =
f 0 (1) 4

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 Differentiability Derivation of the Inverse Bijection

II-Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = 4x + sin4 x.

• Show that f −1 exists and then determine the equation of the tangent to the
curve f −1 at 0.
1 f is defined by the sum and product of two elementary functions (x and
sin x) that are continuous on R, so f is continuous on R.
2 We have f 0 (x) = 4 + 4 cos x sin x3 using the trigonometric identity
sin(2x) = 2 cos x sin x, we get f 0 (x) = 4 + 2 sin(2x) sin2 (x) > 0 for all
x ∈ R. Thus, f is strictly increasing on R.
3 As lim f (x) = +∞ and lim f (x) = −∞, then f (R) = R. Therefore,
x→+∞ x→−∞
and according to the monotone bijection theorem, f −1 exists.
Since f (0) = 0, we have
1 1
(f −1 )0 (0) = =
f 0 (0) 4
Thus, the equation of the tangent line to f −1 at 0 is
x
yT = (f −1 )0 (0)(x − 0) + (f −1 )0 (0) =
4

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 Differentiability Derivation of the Inverse Bijection

III-Let f : R → R such that f (x) = ex , calculate f −1 (x) for all x ∈ R.

Let g = f −1 , then
1 1 1
f (g(x)) = x =⇒ g 0 (x)f 0 (g(x)) = 1 =⇒ g 0 (x) = = = .
f 0 (g(x)) f (g(x)) x

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 Differentiability Derivation of the Inverse Bijection

Proposition 15.
Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function, and let c ∈ [a, b] where f reaches its
maximum or minimum. Then c must be one of the following points :
• a or b
• Stationary points of f (f 0 (x) = 0).
• Points in the interval ]a, b[ where f 0 (x) does not exist.

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Extremum of a derivable Function

Proposition 16.
Let f be a derivable function on I, and let x0 ∈ I such that
• x0 is in the interior of I.
• The point x0 is a local extremum (maximum or minimum) of the function f on
I.
• The function f is derivable at x0 .
Then f 0 (x0 ) = 0.

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Extremum of a derivable Function

Proof
x0 is in the interior of I, meaning there exists δ 0 > 0 such that
[x0 − δ, x0 + δ] ⊂ I.
f has a local extremum at the point x0 , assumed to be a local maximum, i.e.,
∃δ 00 > 0, ∀x ∈ I, |x − x0 | ≤ δ 00 =⇒ f (x) ≤ f (x0 ).
Let δ = min(δ 0 , δ 00 ) > 0. Then,
f (x) − f (x0 )
0 < x − x0 ≤ δ =⇒ ≤0
x − x0
and therefore
f (x) − f (x0 )
fd0 (x0 ) = lim+ ≤0
x→x0 x − x0
Similarly,
f (x) − f (x0 )
−δ ≤ x − x0 < 0 =⇒ ≥0
x − x0
and thus
f (x) − f (x0 )
fg0 (x0 ) = lim− ≥0
x→x0 x − x0
Since f is derivable at x0 , we have
f 0 (x0 ) = fd0 (x0 ) = fg0 (x0 ) = 0. 75 / 92
 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Extremum of a derivable Function

Remark
1-Attention ! ! The condition f 0 (x0 ) = 0 is only a necessary condition (it is not
sufficient). For example, consider the function x 7→ x3 at x0 = 0 ; the derivative is
zero at this point, but x0 is not an extremum.
2-A function may have a local extremum at x0 without being derivable at that
point, such as the function x 7→ |x| at 0.
3-If x0 is an endpoint of the interval, a function may have an extremum at x0
without its derivative being zero. For example, take the function f (x) = x on the
interval [0, 1], where 0 is a minimum and 1 is a maximum.

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Extremum of a derivable Function

Example
1-Determine the extrema of the polynomial P (x) = x5 − 5x4 + 2 on [−4, 6].
First, find the stationary points, i.e., the roots of P 0 . We have
P 0 (x) = 0 =⇒ 5x4 − 20x3 = 5x3 (x − 4) = 0. P has two stationary points x0 = 0
and x1 = 4. Check if these points are extrema :

P (−4) = −2302, P (0) = 2, P (4) = −254, P (6) = 1298

Therefore, the extrema of f are at −4 (minimum) and 6 (maximum).

2-Same question for the function f (x) = x1 on [1, 2].
We have f 0 (x) = − x12 6= 0. f has no stationary points. Since f is decreasing on
[1, 2], we have
1
max f (x) = f (1) = 1 and min f (x) = f (2) = .
x∈[0,1] x∈[0,1] 2

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Rolle’s Theorem

Theorem 5.
Let f : [a; b] → R be a function such that
f is continuous on the interval [a, b].
f is derivable on the open interval (a, b).
f (a) = f (b).
Then, ∃c ∈ (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Rolle’s Theorem

Proof • Since f is a continuous function on the interval [a, b], then f ([a, b]) is an
interval [m, M ] with m ≤ M .
1 If m = M , f is constant on [a, b], so its derivative is zero on (a, b).
2 If M < m, and since f (a) = f (b), one of the two values must be different
from m or M . Suppose f (a) 6= m. The minimum of f on [a, b] is attained at
a point c ∈ [a, b] such that c 6= a and c 6= b, meaning it is in the interior of
[a, b]. Then, according to the previous proposition, we have f 0 (c) = 0.

Remark The Rolle’s Theorem states that the graph of the

function Cf satisfying the conditions of this theorem has at
least one horizontal tangent.

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Mean Value Theorem (M.V.T)

Theorem
Let f : [a; b] → R be a function such that
f is continuous on the interval [a, b].
f is derivable on the open interval ]a, b[.
Then, ∃c ∈]a, b[ such that f (b) − f (a) = f 0 (c)(b − a).

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Mean Value Theorem (M.V.T)

Proof We will construct a function g using the function f that satisfies the
conditions of Rolle’s theorem.
Let’s consider the function g : [a; b] → R defined by
g(x) = f (x) − f (b)−f b−a
(a)
(x − a).
The function g is continuous on [a, b] and derivable on ]a, b[ such that
g(a) = g(b). Then, according to Rolle’s theorem, ∃c ∈]a, b[ such that g 0 (c) = 0,
i.e., g 0 (c) = f 0 (c) − k = 0. Thus

f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Mean Value Theorem (M.V.T)

Remark Under the conditions of the M.V.T, let (Cf ) be the graph of f , if A and
B are two points on (Cf ) with abscissas a and b, then there exists a point on
(Cf ) where the tangent is parallel to the line segment (AB).

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Mean Value Theorem (M.V.T)

Example
1 Show that for all x > 0
1 1
< ln(x + 1) − ln x <
x+1 x
n
1 X1
2 Deduce lim
n→∞ ln n p
p=1
• For x > 0, consider the function

f : [x, x + 1] → R

x 7→ ln x

The function f satisfies the conditions of the Mean Value Theorem, so there
exists c ∈]x, x + 1[ such that

f (x + 1) − f (x)
f 0 (c) = = ln(x + 1) − ln x
x+1−x

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Mean Value Theorem (M.V.T)

0 1
On the other hand, we have f (c) = and since x < c < x + 1, then
c
1 0 1
x+1 ≤ f (c) ≤ x . Consequently, we obtain

1 1
≤ ln(x + 1) − ln x ≤ (1)
x+1 x
From (1), for p ∈ N \ {0, 1}
1 1
≤ ln(p) − ln(p − 1) and ≥ ln(p + 1) − ln p
p p
Thus, we get the enclosure
1
ln(p + 1) − ln p ≤ ≤ ln(p) − ln(p − 1)
p
By summing for p from 2 to n
n n n
X X 1 X
(ln(p + 1) − ln p) ≤ ≤ (ln(p) − ln(p − 1))
p=2 p=2
p p=2
n
X n
X
The sequences (ln(p + 1) − ln p) and (ln(p) − ln(p − 1)) are telescopic
p=2 p=2
sums, then
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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Mean Value Theorem (M.V.T)

n
X n
X
(ln(p + 1) − ln p) = ln(n + 1) − ln 2 and (ln(p) − ln(p − 1)) = ln n − ln 1
p=2 p=2

So
1 1
(ln(n + 1) − ln 2 + 1) ≤ un ≤ (ln n + 1)
ln n ln n
The sequences vn = ln1n (ln(n + 1) − ln 2 + 1) and wn = ln1n (ln n + 1) tend to the
same limit l = 1, according to the sandwich theorem, we deduce that lim un = 1.

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Mean Value Theorem (M.V.T)

Example Show
x
∀x ∈] − 1, +∞[, ≤ ln (1 + x) ≤ x.
1+x

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Applications

Proposition 17.
Let f : I → R be a derivable function on I. We have

• ∀x ∈ I, f 0 (x) ≥ 0 ⇐⇒ f is increasing

• ∀x ∈ I, f 0 (x) ≤ 0 ⇐⇒ f is decreasing

• ∀x ∈ I, f 0 (x) > 0 =⇒ f is strictly increasing

• ∀x ∈ I, f 0 (x) < 0 =⇒ f is strictly decreasing

• ∀x ∈ I, f 0 (x) = 0 ⇐⇒ f is constant.

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Applications

Proof
⇐= If f is increasing, then the rate of change of f is positive, as well as its limit
f 0 (x0 ).
=⇒ Let x ∈ I, we have f 0 (x) ≥ 0. Take x1 , x2 ∈ I such that x1 < x2 . f is
continuous on the interval [x1 ,2 ] and derivable on ]x1 , x2 [. Then, according to the
Mean Value Theorem (MVT), there exists c ∈]x1 , x2 [ such that

f (x1 ) − f (x2 )
f 0 (c) = =⇒ f (x1 ) − f (x2 ) = (x1 − x2 )f 0 (c) ≥ 0
x1 − x2
hence f (x1 ) ≥ f (x2 ), and f is increasing on I.
Note If f is strictly increasing, it does not necessarily imply ∀x ∈ I f 0 (x) > 0.
Take, for example, the function f (x) = x3 ; f is strictly increasing, but the
derivative vanishes.

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Higher Derivatives

Definition (Second Derivative) The function f is twice derivable on I if f 0 is

derivable at every point in I. Its derivative is called the second derivative of f and
is denoted by f 00 or f (2) .
Definition (Derivative of Order n) Let f be a function defined on I, we set
f (0) = f . We define by recurrence the nth derivative of f , denoted f (n) , as the
derivative of f (n−1) , if it exists.
Note
• If f (n) exists, then the derivatives of order less than n are continuous on I.
• If f and g are n times derivable on I, then the functions f + b, f g, fg (g 6= 0 on
I), and g ◦ f are also n times derivable.

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Higher Derivatives

Proposition 18 (Leibniz’s Formula)

If f and g are n times derivable, Leibniz’s formula allows us to calculate the nth
derivative of the product. We have
n  
X n
(f g)(n) = f (n−k) g (k) .
k
k=0

Definition (C n Functions) We say that a function f : I → R is of class C n if

and only if
• f is n times derivable on I.
• The function f (n) is continuous on I.
∗ We denote C 0 (I) as the set of continuous functions on I.
∗ We denote C n (I) (n ≥ 1 ) as the set of n times derivable functions on I.
∗ We denote C ∞ (I) as the set of indefinitely derivable functions on I.

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Higher Derivatives

Example • Calculate the nth derivative of the functions sin x, ln x, and x3 ln x.

• Let f (x) = sin x, f ∈ C ∞ (R). We have
π π
f (x) = sin x = sin(x + 0 ) −→ f 0 (x) = cos x = sin(x + 1 )
2 2
00 π
−→ f (x) = − sin x = sin(x + 2 )
2
(3) π
−→ f (x) = − cos x = sin(x + 3 )
2
By recursion, we obtain the nth derivative of sin given by
sin(n) (x) = sin(x + nπ
2 ), ∀n ∈ N
The function ln x is of class C ∞ (]0, +∞[). We have
1 1 1·2 −1 · 2 · 3
f (x) = ln x −→ f 0 (x) = −→ f 00 (x) = − 2 −→ f (3) (x) = 3 −→ f (4) =
x x x x4
By induction, we obtain the nth derivative of ln given by

(−1)n−1 (n − 1)!
(ln(x))(n) = ∀n ∈ N?
xn

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem Higher Derivatives

• For the function h(x) = x3 ln x, we will use Leibniz’s formula to determine its
nth derivative. Letting f (x) = x3 and g(x) = ln x, we have
n (−1)n−0 (0)! n (−1)n−1 (1)! n (−1)n−2 (2)!
(x3 ln x)(n) = x3 n
+ 3x2 + 6x
0 x 1 xn−1 2 xn−2
n (−1)n−3 (3)!
+ 6
3 xn−3

(−1)n (0)! (−1)n−1 (1)! (−1)n−2 (2)!

= + 3n + 3n(n − 1)
xn−3 xn−3 xn−3

(−1)n−3 (3)!
+ n(n − 1)(n − 2)
xn−3

(−1)n (0)!
= (3(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)) − 3n(n − 1)(n − 3) + n(n − 1)(n − 2))
xn−3

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 Rolle’s Theorem and the Mean Value Theorem L’Hopital’s Rule

Proposition 19. Let f, g :]a, b[→ R be two derivable functions such that g and g 0
do not vanish on ]a, b[. Additionally, suppose

1) lim+ f (x) = lim+ g(x) = α where α = 0, −∞ or + ∞

x→a x→a

f 0 (x)
2) lim+ = β where β ∈ R ∪ {−∞, +∞}
x→a g 0 (x)
Note This rule remains valid if x tends toward b− , −∞, or +∞.

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