Study material
Applied Physics for Electrical and Electronics Engineering
(AY 2025-26)
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Module 5: Semiconductor devices
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Direct and indirect band gap semiconductors
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Definition
Semiconductors can be classified as direct or indirect band gap based on the relative positions of
the conduction band minimum and valence band maximum in momentum space (k-space).
• Direct band bap semiconductors: In these materials, the minimum of the conduction band
and the maximum of the valence band occur at the same momentum (same k-value). Elec-
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trons can directly recombine with holes and emit photons efficiently.
• Indirect band bap semiconductors: In these materials, the conduction band minimum
and the valence band maximum occur at different momenta. Electron-hole recombination
requires a phonon to conserve momentum, making photon emission less probable.
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Figure 1: (a) Direct band gap semiconductors (b) Indirect band gap semiconductors
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1BPHEE102 Module 5. Semiconductor devices Prepared by: Dr. PR
Why direct band gap semiconductors are preferred for optoelectronic devices
Direct band gap semiconductors are ideal for LEDs, laser diodes, and other optoelectronic devices
because:
• Electron-hole recombination occurs directly, producing photons efficiently.
• No phonon is needed to conserve momentum, leading to high radiative efficiency.
• They allow for compact, low-power light sources.
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Table 1: Examples of direct band gap semiconductors
Material Band Gap (eV) Applications
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Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) 1.42 LEDs, Laser diodes, Solar cells
Indium Phosphide (InP) 1.34 High-speed electronics, Optoelectronics
Gallium Nitride (GaN) 3.4 Blue and UV LEDs, Laser diodes
Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) 1.5 Photovoltaic cells, Solar panels
Zinc Oxide (ZnO) 3.37 UV LEDs, Transparent electronics
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Indirect band gap semiconductors, like silicon, are poor light emitters because the recombina-
tion process requires phonons, making photon emission inefficient.
Extrinsic semiconductors
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Definition
An extrinsic semiconductor is a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor whose electrical conductivity is
increased by adding a small and controlled amount of impurity atoms. This process is known as
doping. Depending on the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are classified into:
• n-type semiconductors
• p-type semiconductors
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n-type semiconductor
When a pentavalent impurity such as phosphorus, arsenic or antimony is added to silicon or ger-
manium, an n-type semiconductor is formed.
• Pentavalent impurities donate one extra electron.
• Electrons are the majority charge carriers.
• Holes are minority charge carriers.
• Donor energy level lies just below the conduction band.
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1BPHEE102 Module 5. Semiconductor devices Prepared by: Dr. PR
p-type Semiconductor
When a trivalent impurity such as boron, aluminium or gallium is added to silicon or germanium,
a p-type semiconductor is formed.
• Trivalent impurities create holes.
• Holes are the majority charge carriers.
• Electrons are minority charge carriers.
• Acceptor energy level lies just above the valence band.
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Derivation of Fermi level in n-type semiconductor
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Consider an n-type semiconductor doped with donor atoms of concentration ND .
Electron concentration
The electron concentration in the conduction band is given by
EEn NC exp
EC E F
kT
where,
• NC is the effective density of states in the conduction band,
• EC is the conduction band energy,
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• k is Boltzmann constant,
• T is absolute temperature.
For an n-type semiconductor at room temperature, almost all donor atoms are ionized. Hence,
n ND
Substituting,
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EC E F
ND NC exp
kT
Taking natural logarithm on both sides,
EC E F
ln ND ln NC
kT
Rearranging,
NC
EC E F kT ln
ND
NC
EF EC kT ln
ND
This expression gives the position of the Fermi level in an n-type semiconductor.
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1BPHEE102 Module 5. Semiconductor devices Prepared by: Dr. PR
Conclusion (n-type)
• The Fermi level lies close to the conduction band.
• With increase in donor concentration ND , E F moves closer to EC .
Derivation of Fermi level in p-type semiconductor
Consider a p-type semiconductor doped with acceptor atoms of concentration NA .
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Hole concentration
The hole concentration in the valence band is given by
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E F EV
p NV exp
kT
where,
• NV is the effective density of states in the valence band,
• EV is the valence band energy.
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For a p-type semiconductor at room temperature, almost all acceptor atoms are ionized. Hence,
p NA
Substituting,
E F EV
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NA NV exp
kT
Taking natural logarithm on both sides,
E F EV
ln NA ln NV
kT
Rearranging,
NV
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E F EV kT ln
NA
NV
EF EV kT ln
NA
This expression gives the position of the Fermi level in a p-type semiconductor.
Comparison of Fermi level position
Type Majority Carrier Fermi Level Position
Intrinsic Electrons = Holes Middle of band gap
n-type Electrons Closer to conduction band
p-type Holes Closer to valence band
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Figure 2: Schematic representation of Fermi level in p-type and n-type semiconductors
Important points
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• Position of Fermi level indicates the type of semiconductor.
• Higher doping concentration causes greater shift of Fermi level.
• At absolute zero temperature, the Fermi level lies between donor/acceptor level and the
nearest band.
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Hall effect in semiconductors
Definition
When a current-carrying semiconductor is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction
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of current, a transverse electric field is developed across the semiconductor. This phenomenon is
known as the Hall effect.
Hall effect in n-type semiconductor
Experimental arrangement
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Consider a thin rectangular n-type semiconductor slab of width w and thickness t. A current
I flows along the x-direction and a uniform magnetic field B is applied along the z-direction,
perpendicular to the current. The Hall voltage is measured across the y-direction.
Working Principle
In an n-type semiconductor, electrons are the majority charge carriers. When current flows through
the semiconductor, electrons move with a drift velocity vd . On applying a magnetic field, the
moving electrons experience a magnetic Lorentz force given by
Fm evd B
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Due to this force, electrons are deflected and accumulate on one side of the slab, leaving the
opposite side positively charged. This charge separation produces an electric field called the Hall
electric field E H .
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The electric force acting on electrons is
Fe eE H
At equilibrium,
Fm Fe
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evd B eE H
EH vd B
Derivation of Hall Voltage
The Hall voltage is given by
VH EH w
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The drift velocity of electrons is
I
vd
neA
where A wt is the cross-sectional area.
Substituting for vd ,
I
VH Bw
newt
IB
VH
net
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1BPHEE102 Module 5. Semiconductor devices Prepared by: Dr. PR
Hall Coefficient
Hall coefficient is defined as
EH
RH
JB
Current density,
I
J
wt
Substituting,
1
RH
ne
2
For an n-type semiconductor,
1
RH
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ne
The negative sign indicates that electrons are the majority charge carriers.
Observations
• Hall voltage is negative.
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• Hall voltage is inversely proportional to carrier concentration.
• The sign of Hall coefficient confirms n-type conductivity.
Hall Effect in p-type semiconductor (Summary)
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• In a p-type semiconductor, holes are the majority charge carriers.
• Holes experience Lorentz force in the magnetic field and accumulate on one side of the slab.
• The direction of Hall electric field is opposite to that of n-type semiconductor.
• Hall voltage is positive.
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1
RH
pe
Applications of Hall Effect
1. To determine the type of semiconductor (n-type or p-type).
2. To determine the carrier concentration.
3. To measure magnetic field strength.
4. To determine carrier mobility.
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1BPHEE102 Module 5. Semiconductor devices Prepared by: Dr. PR
Construction and working of semiconducting laser.
A semiconductor laser is a specially fabricated p-n junction diode that emits coherent light, when
it is forward biased. Here the active medium is formulated by semiconducting materials.
Principle
When a p-n junction diode is forward biased the electrons from n-region and holes from p-region
cross the junction and recombine with each other. In this recombination process, the light radiation
(photons) is released from a certain specified direct band gap semiconductors like Ga-AS. The
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photon emitted during recombination stimulates other electrons and holes to recombine. As a
result, stimulated emission takes place which produces laser light.
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Gallium Arsenide laser Construction
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It is a homo-junction semiconductor laser consists of single crystal of GaAs. It is heavily doped
p-n junction diode. The n-section is formed by doping with tellurium whereas the p-section is
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obtained by doping with zinc. The doping concentration is very high, which is in the order of 1017
1019 atoms~cm3 . The size of the diode is very small and each of its sides is of the order of 1 mm.
The junction layer has a width varying from 1 100µm depending upon diffusion and temperature
conditions at the time of fabrication. A pair of parallel planes of the crystal are polished at right
angles to the p-n layer which acts as the reflecting mirrors. The other two faces are roughened to
suppress the laser transitions in that directions. The top and bottom faces are metalized and ohmic
contacts are provided to pass current through the diode.
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Working of GaAs semiconductor laser
A suitable forward bias voltage is applied to the diode to overcome the potential barrier, so the
electrons are injected from the n-type region and holes are injected from the p-type region into the
junction. The region around the junction contains large number of electrons in the conduction band
and large amount of holes in the valence band. Therefore the electrons and holes are injected into
the junction region from opposite sides with forward biasing, then population inversion is achieved
between levels near the bottom of the conduction band and empty levels near the top of the valence
band (shown in below figure). When electrons recombine with holes in the junction region, the
energy is released in the form of photons. As the forward bias voltage is increased, more and
more light photons are emitted and the light production instantly become stronger. These photons
will trigger a chain of stimulated recombination resulting in the release of photons in phase. The
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1BPHEE102 Module 5. Semiconductor devices Prepared by: Dr. PR
photons moving at the plane of junction travels back and forth due to reflection and grow in strength
and the laser light is emitted.
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At room temperature, GaAs laser emits monochromatic radiation of wavelength 8870 Å in IR
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region. The energy gap of GaAs is 1.4 eV.
hc
λ
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Advantages:
• Semiconductor lasers are simple, compact and least expensive of all the lasers available.
• They require less power and little auxiliary equipment.
Disadvantages:
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• They give more divergent beam.
• Less monochromatic and highly temperature sensitive.
• Poor coherence and poor stability.
Applications:
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• The semiconductor diode lasers are used in optical communications since they provide light
beams of wavelengths which have low absorption loss in the optical fibers.
• They are used as reading devices for CD players.
• They are used in space communications.
Photodiode and power responsivity
Photodiode
A photodiode is a type of a diode that converts light energy into an electrical energy. It is a light
sensor that generates an electric current when light falls on it. The phenomenon through which the
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light energy is converted into electrical energy is called the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell or solar
panel consists of an array of photodiodes also called photovoltaic cells that convert solar energy
into electrical current.
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Construction of photodiode
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The photodiode is made using two semiconductors like P-type & N-type. It is designed to
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operate in reverse bias conditions i.e., the P side of the photodiode is connected to the negative
while the N side is connected to the positive terminal of the battery. The contacts are designed
with metals to make two terminals like anode and cathode. The diode is separated into two types
like active & non-active surfaces. The designing of the non-active surface can be done with silicon
dioxide (S iO2 ). The light rays strike on an active surface whereas, on a non-active surface, the
light rays cannot strike. The active surface can be covered through the material of anti-reflection
so that the light energy is not lost.
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Working of photodiode
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1BPHEE102 Module 5. Semiconductor devices Prepared by: Dr. PR
Photodiode works only during the reverse bias. When a photon of energy strikes the diode, it
creates electron-hole. This mechanism is also called the inner photoelectric effect. Holes move
toward the anode, and electrons move toward the cathode, and a photocurrent will be generated.
Since it is reverse bias the depletion region is wide. Since the diode is reverse, the reverse saturation
current flows. As the intensity of light is increased the saturation current also increases. Intensity
of light is directly proportional to the current.
Applications of photodiodes:
• It is used for detection of both visible as well as invisible light rays.
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• Photodiodes are used for the communication system for encoding & demodulation purpose.
• It is also used for digital and logic circuits which require fast switching and high-speed
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operation.
• These diodes also find application in character recognition techniques and IR remote control
circuits.
• Photodiodes include optical disc drives, digital cameras and optical switches etc.
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• Photodiodes are considered as one of the significant optoelectronics devices which is exten-
sively used in the optical fiber communication system.
Power responsivity
The responsivity of photodiode is a measure of sensitivity to light. It is defined as ratio of pho-
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tocurrent (I p ) to incident light power P at given wavelength.
Ip
Responsivity, Rλ
P
In other words, it is a measure of the effectiveness of conversion of light power into electric current.
It varies with the wavelength of incident light, applied reverse bias and temperature.
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Quantum efficiency of a photodiode
The quantum efficiency η of a photodiode is defined as the ratio of the number of electrons
generated per second to the number of incident photons per second.
Number of electrons generated per second
η
Number of incident photons per second
Since photocurrent is due to the flow of electrons,
I p ~e
η
P~hν
I p hν
η
eP
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1BPHEE102 Module 5. Semiconductor devices Prepared by: Dr. PR
Relation between quantum efficiency and power responsivity
c
Using the relation ν ,
λ
Rλ hc
η
eλ
or equivalently,
ηeλ
Rλ
hc
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Meaning of symbols used
• η : Quantum efficiency
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• I p : Photocurrent (A)
• P : Incident optical power (W)
• e : Electronic charge 1.6 1019 C
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• h : Planck’s constant
• ν : Frequency of incident radiation (Hz)
• c : Velocity of light in free space (m/s)
• λ : Wavelength of incident light (m)
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• Rλ : Responsivity of the photodiode (A/W)
Important points
• Quantum efficiency represents the effectiveness of photon-to-electron conversion.
• For an ideal photodiode, η 1.
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• In practical photodiodes, η @ 1 due to recombination and reflection losses.
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