📚 Physics Fundamentals Overview

Brief Overview
This note covering Physics Fundamentals was created from a 374-page PDF presentation.
It covers topics like rotational dynamics, electromagnetism, fluid mechanics,
thermodynamics, and quantum basics.

Key Points
Rotational mechanics fundamentals
Fluid mechanics basics
Thermodynamics and radiation laws
Quantum and atomic structure

Rotational Dynamics ⚙️
Characteristics of Circular Motion
Accelerated motion: The direction of velocity changes at every instant, making
it an accelerated motion.
Periodic motion: The particle repeats its path along the same trajectory,
making the motion periodic.
Kinematics of Circular Motion
Angular displacement (θ), angular velocity (ω ), and angular acceleration (α)
are analogous to translational displacement, velocity, and acceleration.
Tangential velocity is given by the cross product v = ω × r, where r is the
radius vector from the center of the circular motion. The magnitude is v = ωr .
Direction of ω : Always along the axis of rotation, determined by the right-hand
thumb rule.
Curl the fingers of the right hand in the sense of rotation. The
outstretched thumb gives the direction of ω .
A diagram illustrating the right-hand thumb rule for
determining the direction of angular velocity.
If T is the period and n is the frequency, then ω = 2πn = .2π

T
​
Uniform Circular Motion (UCM)

In UCM, the speed of the particle remains constant, but the direction of its velocity
changes at every instant.

The velocity is always tangential to the path.

The acceleration responsible for this is the centripetal or radial acceleration:
a = −ω r .
2
r ​

Magnitude of centripetal acceleration is constant: a = ω r = .

2
2 v
r ​

r
​

It is always directed towards the center of the circular motion.

Diagram showing directions of linear velocity and
acceleration in UCM.
Non-Uniform Circular Motion

In non-uniform circular motion, the magnitude of the velocity changes.

Centripetal acceleration (a ) is still present.

r ​

Tangential acceleration (a ) is also present, responsible for changing the

t ​

magnitude of the velocity. It is directed along or opposite to the velocity.

The corresponding angular velocity (ω) also changes, which is due to angular
acceleration (α).
If speed is increasing, α is in the same direction as ω .
If speed is decreasing, α is in the opposite direction of ω .
Diagram showing the direction of angular acceleration
for increasing and decreasing speed.
Dynamics of Circular Motion
Centripetal Force (CPF)

The force providing the centripetal acceleration is the centripetal force. CPF is not a
type of force but a property of a force, indicating its direction is towards the center.
 Formula: F CPF ​ = −mω r
2

Magnitude: F
2
2 v
CPF ​ = mω r = m ​ = mvω
r

Centrifugal Force (CFF)

A pseudo force arising due to the centripetal acceleration of the frame of reference. It
is directed away from the center.

It is a non-real force experienced in a non-inertial (rotating) frame of reference.

Magnitude: F = mω r = m
2
2 v
CFF

In a uniform circular motion frame, the centrifugal force balances the net real
​ ​

forces (the centripetal force).

Applications of Uniform Circular Motion
Vehicle on a Horizontal Circular Track
Forces acting:
1. Weight (mg) acting downwards.
2. Normal reaction (N ) acting upwards.
3. Force of static friction (f ) between the road and tires, directed
s

towards the center. This provides the necessary centripetal force.

​

Equations of motion:
N = mg

Centripetal force: f
2
mv
s ​ = ​

Maximum possible speed: The static friction has an upper limit, f s,max ​ =

μs N = μs mg
​ ​ .
vmax =​ μs r g
​ ​

Well of Death
A vertical cylindrical wall inside which a vehicle is driven in horizontal circles.
Forces acting:
1. Normal reaction (N ) acting horizontally towards the center, providing
the centripetal force.
2. Weight (mg) acting vertically downwards.
3. Force of static friction (f ) acting vertically upwards, preventing
s

downward slipping.
​

Equations of motion:
2
mv
N = ​

fs = mg
​
 For the vehicle not to slip down, f s ​ ≤ μs N ​ .
2
mv
mg ≤ μs

Minimum speed:
​ ​

rg
vmin = ​ ​ ​

μs ​

Vehicle on a Banked Road

Banking of a road: The surface of a curved road is tilted with the horizontal at
an angle θ .
Ignoring friction, the forces are weight (mg) and normal reaction (N ).
The vertical component of normal reaction, N cos θ, balances the weight mg .
The horizontal component, N sin θ, provides the necessary centripetal force.
Most Safe Speed (v ): The speed at which friction is not needed.
s ​

From N cos θ = mg and N sin θ = , we get:

2
mv
​

vs =
​ rg tan θ ​

Banking Angle: θ = tan

2
−1 v
( ​ )
rg

Speed Limits with Friction:

Lower Speed Limit (v min ): To prevent sliding down.
​

tan θ−μs ​

vmin =​ rg ( ​ ) ​

1+μs tan θ
​

Upper Speed Limit (v max ): To prevent skidding up.

​

tan θ+μs ​

vmax = ​ rg ( ​ ) ​

1−μs tan θ ​

The following diagram shows the forces acting on a vehicle at the upper speed
limit on a banked road.
Conical Pendulum

A tiny mass (bob) connected to a long, flexible, massless string, suspended from a rigid
support and revolved in a horizontal circle.

Forces on the bob: Tension (T ) and weight (mg). ′

The vertical component of tension, T cos θ, balances the weight mg . ′

The horizontal component, T sin θ, provides the centripetal force

2
′ mv 2
= mrω

.
​

Period of revolution:
L cos θ
T = 2π ​ ​

Frequency of revolution:
1 1 g
n = ​
= ​ ​ ​

T 2π L cos θ

Vertical Circular Motion

Mass Tied to a String (Gravity Controlled)
Uppermost position (A):
2
mv ​

A
TA + mg =
​ ​

Minimum speed at top: (v A )min = rg (when T A = 0 )

Lowermost position (B):
​ ​ ​ ​

2
mv ​

B
TB − mg =
​ ​

Minimum speed at bottom: (v B )min

​ ​ = 5rg ​
 Horizontal positions (C, D):
Minimum speed: v = v = 3rg C D

Energy Conservation: The decrease in potential energy is converted into

​ ​ ​

kinetic energy.
1 2 1 2 2 2
mg(2r) = mv − mv ⟹ v − v = 4rg
B A B A
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

2 2

Difference in Tensions: T B ​ − TA = 6mg ​ .

Mass Tied to a Rigid Rod
The rod can support the bob even at zero speed at the top.
Minimum speed at top: (v ) = 0 A ​

min ​

Minimum speed at bottom: (v ) = 4rg = 2 rg B ​

min ​ ​ ​

Minimum speed at horizontal position: v = 2rg C

🔄
​ ​

Rotational Motion
Moment of Inertia (I )

Moment of inertia is the rotational analogue of mass. It measures an object's resistance

to angular acceleration.

For a system of N particles, I = ∑ m r , where m is the mass of the i-th N

i=1
​

i ​

i
2
​

i ​

particle and r is its perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation.

i ​

For a continuous rigid body, I = ∫ r dm . 2

It depends on the mass of the object and the distribution of mass about the axis
of rotation.
This diagram illustrates a rigid object composed of multiple particles rotating around an
axis.
 Rotational Kinetic Energy: K rot ​
=
1

2
​
Iω
2

Radius of Gyration (K )

The distance from the axis of rotation to a point where the entire mass of the body is
assumed to be concentrated, so that the moment of inertia remains the same.

2 I
I = MK ⟹ K = ​ ​

It represents the effective distance of the mass from the axis.

Theorem of Parallel Axes

The moment of inertia (I ) of a body about any axis is the sum of its moment of inertia
o ​

(I ) about a parallel axis passing through its center of mass and the product of its mass
c ​

(M ) and the square of the distance (h) between the two axes.
2
Io = Ic + M h
​ ​

Theorem of Perpendicular Axes

For a laminar (planar) object, the moment of inertia (I ) about an axis perpendicular to z ​

its plane is the sum of its moments of inertia about two mutually perpendicular axes (I x ​

and I ) lying in its plane, with all three axes being concurrent.
y ​

Iz = Ix + Iy
​ ​ ​
Angular Momentum and Torque
Angular Momentum (L)
Analogue of linear momentum, also called moment of linear momentum.
L = r × p, where p is linear momentum.
​ ​

In terms of moment of inertia: L = I ω .

Torque (τ )
The rotational analogue of force, also called moment of force.
τ = r × F

In terms of moment of inertia: τ = I α . The following diagram illustrates the

relationship between forces, masses, and rotation.

Conservation of Angular Momentum

If the net external torque acting on a system is zero, its angular momentum remains
constant.
dL
​
= τext ​

dt

If τ , then L = I ω = constant .
ext ​ = 0

Applications: Ballet dancers, divers, and ice skaters use this principle to change
their angular speed by changing their moment of inertia (by stretching or folding
their limbs).
Rolling Motion
Rolling is a combination of translational and rotational motion.
The center of mass performs translational motion.
Total Kinetic Energy: Sum of translational and rotational kinetic energies.
1 2 1 2
Ktotal = Ktrans + Krot =
​ ​ ​ ​
Mv + ​
Iω
2 2

Using I = M K and v = Rω, we get: 2

2
1 2 K
Ktotal = ​ ​ Mv (1 + 2
​ )
2 R

Linear Acceleration on an Inclined Plane: For an object rolling down without

slipping:
g sin θ
a = 2 ​

K
1+ 2
​

Final Velocity after rolling down a height h:

R

2gh
v = 2
​ ​

K
1+ ​

R2

Mechanical Properties of Fluids 💧

Introduction to Fluids
A fluid is a substance that can flow. It includes liquids, gases, and plasmas. Fluids
deform continuously under an external shear force.

Ideal Fluid Properties:

1. Incompressible: Density is constant.
2. Irrotational: Flow is smooth, no turbulence.
3. Non-viscous: No internal friction.
4. Steady flow: Velocity at each point is constant in time.
Solids can resist shear stress, while ideal fluids can only be subjected to normal,
compressive stress (pressure).
Pressure
Pressure (p) is the normal force (F ) exerted by a fluid at rest per unit surface area (A)
of contact.
F
p = ​

SI Unit: N/m² or Pascal (Pa)

A

It is a scalar quantity.
 Other units:
1 bar = 10 N/m² 5

1 torr = 1 mm of Hg
1 hectopascal (hPa) = 100 Pa
Pressure Due to a Liquid Column
The pressure exerted by a liquid column of height h and density ρ at rest is:
p = hρg

Pressure at a certain depth is independent of the shape and size of the

container.
Atmospheric Pressure

The pressure exerted by the weight of the air column in the atmosphere above a
certain point.

It is highest at sea level and decreases with altitude.

Normal atmospheric pressure: The atmospheric pressure at sea level.
Absolute and Gauge Pressure
Absolute Pressure (p): The total pressure at a depth h below a liquid surface. It
is the sum of atmospheric pressure (p ) and the pressure due to the liquid
a

column.
​

p = pa + hρg
​

Gauge Pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the
atmospheric pressure.
p − pa = hρg
​

Pascal's Law

Pascal's law states that pressure applied at any point of an enclosed fluid at rest is
transmitted equally and undiminished to every point of the fluid and also on the walls
of the container, provided the effect of gravity is neglected.

Applications:
Hydraulic Lift: Uses a small force to lift a heavy object. The principle
is based on the pressure being transmitted equally. The force is
magnified by the ratio of the areas of the pistons.
A2
F2 = F1 ( )
​

​ ​ ​

A1 ​
 Hydraulic Brakes: Used to slow down or stop vehicles. A small force
on the brake pedal is converted into a large force on the brake pads.
Surface Tension
Surface tension is a property of a liquid at rest that causes its free surface to behave
like a stretched elastic membrane. It arises from the cohesive forces between liquid
molecules.

Intermolecular Forces:
Cohesive force: Force of attraction between molecules of the same
substance.
Adhesive force: Force of attraction between molecules of different
substances.
Surface Tension (T ): The tangential force acting per unit length on an
imaginary line drawn on the free surface of a liquid.
F
T =

SI Unit: N/m or J/m²

​

Surface Energy: The extra potential energy possessed by molecules in the

surface layer compared to molecules inside the liquid.
Work done to increase surface area is stored as surface energy:
dW = T ⋅ dA

Surface tension is also the surface energy per unit area.

Angle of Contact (θ)

The angle between the tangent drawn to the free surface of the liquid and the surface
of the solid at the point of contact, measured within the liquid.

Acute angle (θ < 90 ): Liquid wets the solid surface (e.g., water on glass),
∘

forming a concave meniscus.

Obtuse angle (θ > 90 ): Liquid does not wet the solid surface (e.g., mercury on
∘

glass), forming a convex meniscus.

Zero angle (θ ≈ 0 ): Liquid completely wets the solid (e.g., pure water on clean
∘

glass).
Capillarity
 The phenomenon of the rise or fall of a liquid inside a capillary tube when it is dipped
in the liquid.

Capillary Rise/Fall Expression: The height (h) to which a liquid rises or falls is
given by:
2T cos θ
h = ​

rρg

Where T is surface tension, θ is the angle of contact, r is the radius

of the capillary tube, ρ is the density of the liquid, and g is the
acceleration due to gravity.
If θ is acute (cos θ > 0), h is positive (capillary rise).
If θ is obtuse (cos θ < 0), h is negative (capillary depression).
Fluids in Motion 🌊
Types of Flow
Steady Flow: Properties like pressure and velocity at a given point are constant
over time.
Streamline Flow (Laminar Flow): A steady flow where adjacent layers of fluid
move smoothly over each other.
Turbulent Flow: Irregular and unsteady flow at high flow rates.
Flow line: The path of an individual particle in a moving fluid.
Streamline: A curve whose tangent at any point gives the direction of fluid
velocity at that point.
Critical Velocity and Reynolds Number
Critical Velocity (v ): The velocity beyond which streamline flow becomes
c ​

turbulent.
Rn η
​

vc =
​ ​

ρd

Reynolds Number (R ): A dimensionless number that determines the nature of

n

the flow.
​

ρvd
Rn = ​ ​

Rn < 1000
​ : Streamline flow
R > 2000: Turbulent flow
n ​

1000 < R < 2000: Unsteady flow

n ​

Viscosity

Viscosity is the property of a fluid by virtue of which the relative motion between its
different layers experiences a dragging force, called viscous drag. It is essentially fluid
 friction.

Coefficient of Viscosity (η ): According to Newton's law of viscosity, for

streamline flow, the viscous force (f ) is:
dv
f = ηA ​

dx

Where A is the area of the layer and dv

is the velocity gradient.
SI unit: Ns/m²
​

dx

Stokes' Law and Terminal Velocity

Stokes' Law: The viscous force (f ) on a small sphere of radius r falling through
v ​

a viscous medium with velocity v is:

fv = 6πηrv
​

Terminal Velocity (v ): The constant downward velocity attained by an object

t

falling through a viscous fluid when the net force on it becomes zero.
The forces acting are viscous drag (upwards), buoyant force
(upwards), and gravitational force (downwards).
2
2 r g(ρ−σ)
vt =
​ ​ ​

9 η

Where ρ is the density of the sphere and σ is the density of the

medium.
Equation of Continuity and Bernoulli's Principle
Equation of Continuity

For a steady flow of an incompressible fluid, the volume rate of flow (A ⋅ v) is constant
throughout the flow.

A1 v 1 = A2 v 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ⟹ Av = constant

This is a statement of the conservation of mass for fluids.

The diagram below shows the steady flow of a fluid through a pipe of varying
cross-section.
Bernoulli's Equation

For the streamline flow of an ideal (incompressible, non-viscous) fluid, the sum of the
pressure, kinetic energy per unit volume, and potential energy per unit volume remains
constant.

1 2
p + ​
ρv + ρgh = constant
2

This equation is a statement of the conservation of energy for a flowing fluid.

This diagram illustrates the parameters involved in Bernoulli's principle for a
fluid flowing through a curved pipe with changing elevation and diameter.
 Applications:
Speed of Efflux (Torricelli's Law): The speed of a fluid flowing out of
an orifice at a depth h below the free surface is v = 2gh .
Venturi Tube: Measures the speed of fluid flow.
​

Lift on an Aeroplane Wing: The shape of the wing causes air to flow
faster over the top surface, creating lower pressure above and higher
pressure below, resulting in an upward lift.
Atomizer/Sprayer: High-speed air creates a low-pressure region,
drawing liquid up a tube to be sprayed.

Kinetic Theory of Gases and Radiation 🔥

Behavior of a Gas
Gases are described by macroscopic parameters: Pressure (P), Volume (V), and
Temperature (T).
Kinetic theory explains these macroscopic properties based on the microscopic
behavior (random motion) of gas molecules.
Gas Laws:
Boyle's Law: V ∝ (at constant T)
1

P
​

Charles' Law: V ∝ T (at constant P)

Gay-Lussac's Law: P ∝ T (at constant V)
Ideal Gas and Real Gas
Ideal Gas: A hypothetical gas that perfectly obeys the ideal gas equation (
P V = nRT ) at all pressures and temperatures. In an ideal gas, intermolecular
interactions are absent.
Real Gas: Composed of atoms/molecules that do interact. Real gases behave
like ideal gases at low pressures and high temperatures.
Ideal Gas Equation:
P V = nRT

P V = N kB T

Where:
​

n = number of moles
R = universal gas constant (8.314 J mol⁻¹ K⁻¹)

N = number of molecules

k = Boltzmann constant (k = )
B ​

B ​
R

NA
​

= Avogadro number
​

N A ​

Mean Free Path (λ)

The average distance traversed by a molecule with constant velocity between two
successive collisions.

Molecules in a gas are in continuous random motion, colliding with each other
and the container walls.
The path between collisions is a straight line.
Formula: λ = 2πd (
1
2 N
)
​

Where d is the molecular diameter and is the number density of

​ ​

the gas.
​

Pressure of an Ideal Gas

Based on kinetic theory, the pressure exerted by an ideal gas is derived from the collisions
of its molecules with the walls of the container.
Assumptions:
1. Molecules are in random motion.
2. Collisions with walls are perfectly elastic.
3. Intermolecular collisions are neglected (for this derivation).
The pressure P is given by:
1 Nm 2
P = ​ ​ v
3 V
 Where N is the total number of molecules, m is the mass of one
molecule, V is the volume, and v is the mean square speed of the 2

molecules.
Root Mean Square (rms) Speed (v rms
)
​

The square root of the mean of the squares of the speeds of the gas molecules.

2 3P V 3nRT 3RT
vrms = ​ v ​
= ​ = ​ ​ = ​ ​

Nm Nm M0 ​

M0 = NA m is the molar mass of the gas.

The average translational kinetic energy of a molecule is:
​ ​

1 2 3
mv = kB T

This shows that the average kinetic energy of a gas molecule is directly
​ ​ ​

2 2

proportional to the absolute temperature (T ) of the gas.

Law of Equipartition of Energy
For a gas in thermal equilibrium, the average energy per molecule associated with each
quadratic term (degree of freedom) is k T . 1

2
​

B ​

Degrees of Freedom (dof): The total number of independent coordinates

required to describe the position and configuration of a system.
Monatomic Gas (e.g., He, Ar): 3 translational dof.
Average Energy/molecule = k T 3
B

Diatomic Gas (e.g., O₂, N₂) (rigid rotator): 3 translational + 2

​ ​

rotational = 5 dof.
Average Energy/molecule = k T 5
B

Diatomic Gas (non-rigid, vibrating): 3 translational + 2 rotational + 2

​ ​

vibrational = 7 dof.
Average Energy/molecule = k T (each vibrational mode 7
B

has KE and PE terms).

​ ​

Specific Heat Capacity

Two specific heats are defined for gases:
C : Specific heat at constant volume.
V ​

C : Specific heat at constant pressure.

P ​

Mayer’s Relation: Connects the two molar specific heats.

CP − CV = R ​ ​
 Adiabatic Ratio (γ ): γ = CP

CV
​

​
​

Gas Type Degrees of Internal CV =

dU
CP = γ =
CP ​

Freedom (f) Energy (U)

​ ​ ​ ​

dT CV ​

CV + R
​

Monatomic 3 3
RT
3
R
5
R
5
≈ 1.67

(translational)
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2 2 3

Diatomic 5 (3 trans + 5
RT
5
R
7
R
7
= 1.4

(rigid) 2 rot)
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2 2 5

Diatomic 7 (3 trans + 7
RT
7
R
9
R
9
≈ 1.29

(vibrating) 2 rot + 2
​ ​ ​ ​

2 2 2 7

vib)

Radiation ☀️
Absorption, Reflection, and Transmission
When thermal radiation of total amount Q is incident on a surface:
Q = Qa + Qr + Qt
​ ​ ​

Dividing by Q: 1 = Qa

Q
​

​
+
Qr

Q
​

​
+
Qt

Q
​

​
⟹ 1 = a + r + tr ​

Coefficient of Absorption (a): Ratio of heat absorbed to total heat incident.

Coefficient of Reflection (r): Ratio of heat reflected to total heat incident.
Coefficient of Transmission (t ): Ratio of heat transmitted to total heat
r ​

incident.
Perfectly Blackbody: a = 1, r = 0, t r = 0 . It absorbs all incident
radiation.
​

Diathermanous substance: t r ≈ 1 . Allows heat radiation to pass

through (e.g., glass, quartz).
​

Athermanous substance: t r ≈ 0 . Opaque to thermal radiations

(e.g., water, wood).
​

Perfect Blackbody

A body which absorbs the entire radiant energy incident on it is called a perfect
blackbody.

Ferry's Blackbody: A practical realization of a perfect blackbody. It consists of

a double-walled hollow sphere with a tiny aperture. The inner surface is coated
with lamp-black. Any radiation entering the aperture undergoes multiple
internal reflections and is almost completely absorbed.
The diagram below shows the structure of Ferry's blackbody.

Kirchhoff's Law of Heat Radiation

At a given temperature, the ratio of emissive power to the coefficient of absorption of

a body is equal to the emissive power of a perfect blackbody at the same temperature
for all wavelengths.

Emissivity (e) = Absorptivity (a).

This means good absorbers are good emitters, and poor absorbers are poor
emitters.
Wien's Displacement Law

The wavelength (λ ) for which the emissive power of a blackbody is maximum, is

max ​

inversely proportional to its absolute temperature (T ).

λmax ⋅ T = b
​

b= Wien's constant = 2.897 × 10 m·K.

−3

This law is used to determine the temperatures of celestial bodies like stars.
The graph below shows the spectral distribution of blackbody radiation at different
temperatures, illustrating Wien's Law.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law of Radiation

The rate of emission of radiant energy per unit area (or the power radiated per unit
area, R) of a perfect blackbody is directly proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature (T ).

For a perfect blackbody: R = σT 4

For an ordinary body: R = eσT 4

e is the emissivity of the surface.

σ = Stefan's constant = 5.67 × 10 W m⁻² K⁻⁴.

−8

Net rate of loss of energy: If a body at temperature T is in surroundings at

temperature T (T > T ):
0 ​

0 ​

Rate of loss = eσA(T − T )

4 4
0
​

Thermodynamics 🌡️
Thermal Equilibrium and Zeroth Law
Thermal Equilibrium: Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if they are at the
same temperature and do not transfer heat between each other.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics:
 "If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are
also in thermal equilibrium with each other."

This law establishes temperature as a fundamental and measurable

property.
Heat, Internal Energy, and Work
Internal Energy (U): The sum of the kinetic and potential energies of all the
molecules of a system. It is the energy associated with the random, disordered
motion of molecules.
For an ideal monatomic gas, U = nRT . 3

2
​

For an ideal diatomic gas, U = nRT .

5
​

Thermodynamic System: A collection of objects that can form a unit and

2

exchange energy with its surroundings.

Open System: Exchanges both energy and matter with surroundings.
Closed System: Exchanges energy but not matter.
Isolated System: Exchanges neither energy nor matter.
Heat (Q): The energy transferred between a system and its environment due to
a temperature difference.
Q > 0: Heat is transferred to the system.

Q < 0: Heat is transferred from the system.

Work (W): Energy transferred due to a change in volume. Work done by the
system is considered positive.
For a small volume change dV at pressure p: dW = pdV .
Total work done from initial volume V to final volume V : W =
i ​

f ​

pdV .
Vf ​

∫ ​

Vi

Work done is represented by the area under the p-V diagram.

​

First Law of Thermodynamics

The change in the internal energy (ΔU ) of a system is the difference between the heat
supplied to the system (Q) and the work done by the system (W ) on its surroundings.

Mathematical Statement:
ΔU = Q − W

Alternatively: Q = ΔU + W
This is a statement of the conservation of energy for thermodynamic systems.
Thermodynamic Processes
Reversible and Irreversible Processes
Reversible Process: A process that can be retraced in the reverse direction. The
path is the same in forward and reverse directions. These are infinitesimally
slow (quasi-static) processes where the system is always in thermodynamic
equilibrium.
Irreversible Process: A process that cannot be retraced. The path is different in
forward and reverse directions. Most real-world processes are irreversible due
to factors like friction and heat dissipation.
Types of Thermodynamic Processes
Process Definition Condition Equation Work Heat (Q) Internal
of State Done (W) Energy
Change (
ΔU )

Isothermal Constant ΔT = 0 pV = nRT ln (

Vf ​

)Q = W ΔU = 0

Temperature
​

Vi ​

constant

Isobaric Constant Δp = 0
V
= p(Vf − nCp ΔT nCV ΔT

Pressure
​ ​ ​ ​

constant Vi )​

Isochoric Constant ΔV = 0
p
= W = 0 Q = ΔU nCV ΔT

Volume
​ ​

constant

Adiabatic No Heat Q = 0 pV
γ
=
pi Vi − pf Vf
​ ​ ​ ​

Q = 0 ΔU =

Exchange
​

γ −1

constant −W

Cyclic Returns to Final state N/A Area of Q = W ΔU = 0

initial = Initial the loop

state state
Free Expansion: An adiabatic expansion where no work is done. For an ideal
gas, there is no change in internal energy or temperature.
Heat Engines, Refrigerators, and Heat Pumps
Heat Engine

A device that converts heat energy into mechanical work through a cyclic process.
 Components: Working substance, hot reservoir (source, at T ), and cold H ​

reservoir (sink, at T ). C

Working Principle:
​

1. Absorbs heat Q from the hot reservoir. H ​

2. Converts part of it into work W .

3. Rejects the remaining heat Q to the cold reservoir. C ​

Net Work Done: W = ∣Q ∣ − ∣Q ∣ H ​

C ​

Thermal Efficiency (η ): The ratio of the net work done to the heat absorbed.
W QC ​

η = ​ = 1 − ​

QH ​ QH ​

Refrigerator and Heat Pump

A heat engine working in reverse. It transfers heat from a colder region to a hotter
region by doing external work on the system.

Heat Q is extracted from the cold reservoir.

C ​

Work W is done on the system (e.g., by a compressor).

Heat Q = Q + W is rejected to the hot reservoir.
H C

Coefficient of Performance (CoP or K):

​ ​

Heat Extracted QC ​ QC ​

K = ​ = ​
= ​

Work Done W QH − QC ​ ​

Second Law of Thermodynamics

This law sets fundamental limits on the efficiency of heat engines and the performance of
refrigerators. It has two main statements:
1. Kelvin-Planck Statement (Engine Law):

"It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces

no other effect than the extraction of heat from a single reservoir and the
performance of an equivalent amount of work."

This implies that no heat engine can have 100% efficiency.

2. Clausius Statement (Refrigerator Law):
 "It is impossible for a self-acting machine, unaided by any external agency, to
transfer heat from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a higher
temperature."

This implies that heat cannot spontaneously flow from cold to hot.
Work must be done.
Carnot Cycle and Carnot Engine
The Carnot cycle is a theoretical, reversible thermodynamic cycle consisting of two
isothermal and two adiabatic processes. An engine operating on this cycle is the most
efficient possible heat engine.

Processes:
1. Isothermal Expansion (A → B) at T H

2. Adiabatic Expansion (B → C)
​

3. Isothermal Compression (C → D) at T C

4. Adiabatic Compression (D → A)
​

Efficiency of a Carnot Engine: Depends only on the temperatures of the hot

and cold reservoirs.
TC
ηC arnot = 1 −
​

​ ​

TH

Carnot Refrigerator CoP:

​

TC
KC arnot =
​

​ ​

TH −TC
​ ​

Oscillations 〰️
Periodic and Oscillatory Motion
Periodic Motion: Any motion that repeats itself after a definite interval of time.
Oscillatory Motion: A periodic motion where a particle moves to and fro along
the same path.
Every oscillatory motion is periodic, but not every periodic motion is
oscillatory.
Linear Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M.)
 A type of oscillatory motion where the restoring force (or acceleration) is always
directed towards the mean position and its magnitude is directly proportional to the
displacement from the mean position.

Restoring Force: F = −kx , where k is the force constant and x is the

displacement.
Acceleration: a = − k
x = −ω x
2
.
Differential Equation of S.H.M.:
m

2
d x 2
+ ω x = 0
dt2
​

Where ω = m
k
​ ​ is the angular frequency.
The image below illustrates the restoring force in a spring-mass system, a classic example
of S.H.M.

Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration in S.H.M.

Displacement (x): The general expression for displacement at time t is:
x(t) = A sin(ωt + ϕ)

A : Amplitude (maximum displacement)

 ω: Angular frequency (ω = 2π

T
​ = 2πn )
ϕ: Initial phase or epoch

Velocity (v ):
dx
v(t) = ​ = Aω cos(ωt + ϕ)
dt

In terms of displacement: v = ±ω A − x 2 2
​

Maximum velocity (at mean position, x = 0): v max ​

= ±Aω

Acceleration (a):
dv 2 2
a(t) = ​ = −Aω sin(ωt + ϕ) = −ω x
dt

Maximum acceleration (at extreme positions, x = ±A): a max ​ =

2
∓Aω

Energy in S.H.M.
Kinetic Energy (K.E.):
1 2 1 2 2 2
K .E . = ​ mv = ​ mω (A − x )

Maximum at mean position, zero at extremes.

2 2

Potential Energy (P.E.):

1 2 1 2 2
P .E . = ​
kx = ​
mω x

Zero at mean position, maximum at extremes.

2 2

Total Energy (E):

1 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
E = K .E . + P .E . = ​
mω (A − x ) + ​
mω x = ​
mω A =
2 2 2
1 2
kA

Total energy is conserved and is constant at all points.

​

Simple Pendulum
An ideal simple pendulum consists of a heavy point mass (bob) suspended by a
massless, inextensible string from a rigid support.

For small angular displacements (θ), the motion is approximately linear S.H.M.
Restoring Force: F = −mg sin θ ≈ −mgθ = −mg x

L
​

Time Period (T ):
acceleration per unit displacement L
T = 2π ​ ​
= 2π ​ ​

1 g

Laws of Simple Pendulum:

1. T ∝ L (Law of length) ​

2. T ∝ (Law of acceleration due to gravity)

1

g
​

3. T is independent of the mass of the bob.

4. T is independent of the amplitude (for small amplitudes).
 Seconds' Pendulum: A pendulum with a period of 2 seconds. Its length is
approximately 1 meter on Earth.
Damped Oscillations
Periodic oscillations of gradually decreasing amplitude due to the presence of resistive
forces like friction or air drag.

The damping force is often proportional to the velocity: F = −bv . d ​

Differential Equation: m + b + kx = 0
2
d x dx
2 ​ ​

dt dt

Displacement: The amplitude decreases exponentially with time.

−bt/2m ′
x(t) = Ae sin(ω t + ϕ)

Where the new angular frequency is ω = ) .

2
′ k b
− ( ​ ​ ​

m 2m

The graph below shows the decaying amplitude of a damped oscillator over
time.

Forced Oscillations and Resonance

Free Oscillations: Oscillations at the natural frequency of the system.
Forced Oscillations: Oscillations under the influence of an external periodic
force (driver). The system oscillates at the driver's frequency.
Resonance: The phenomenon where the frequency of the external periodic
force matches the natural frequency of the system.
At resonance, the system absorbs maximum energy from the driver,
and the amplitude of oscillation becomes very large.
This setup demonstrates forced oscillations, where a driver pendulum induces vibrations in
other pendulums.

Superposition of Waves 🌊
Progressive Wave
A wave in which the disturbance produced in the medium travels in a given direction
continuously, without damping or obstruction.

Properties:
Particles execute S.H.M. with the same amplitude, period, and
frequency.
Phase changes from one particle to another.
Energy is transferred, but matter is not.
Can be transverse or longitudinal.
Equation of a progressive wave traveling in the positive x-direction:
y(x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt)

k = (wave number)
2π

λ
​

ω = 2πn (angular frequency)

Reflection of Waves
When a wave reaches an interface between two media, it is partially reflected.
Reflection from a Denser Medium (Fixed End):
Transverse Wave: A crest is reflected as a trough, and a trough as a
crest. There is a phase change of π radians (180°).
Longitudinal Wave: A compression is reflected as a compression,
and a rarefaction as a rarefaction. No phase change.
Reflection from a Rarer Medium (Free End):
Transverse Wave: A crest is reflected as a crest, and a trough as a
trough. No phase change.
Longitudinal Wave: A compression is reflected as a rarefaction, and
vice versa. There is a phase change of π radians (180°).
Superposition of Waves
When two or more waves overlap at a common point, the resultant displacement at
that point is the vector sum of the displacements due to individual waves.

Constructive Interference: When two waves with the same phase superpose
(e.g., crest on crest), the resultant amplitude is the sum of their individual
amplitudes (A = A + A ).
res 1 2

Destructive Interference: When two waves with opposite phases superpose

​ ​ ​

(e.g., crest on trough), the resultant amplitude is the difference of their

individual amplitudes (A = ∣A − A ∣). res ​

1 ​

2 ​

Resultant Amplitude: For two waves with amplitudes A , A and phase 1 ​

2 ​

difference ϕ:
2 2
A = A + A + 2A1 A2 cos ϕ
1 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Stationary Waves (Standing Waves)

When two identical waves (same amplitude and frequency) traveling along the same
path in opposite directions interfere, the resultant wave is called a stationary wave.

Equation: The superposition of y 1 ​ = a sin(2π(nt − x/λ)) and y 2 ​ =

a sin(2π(nt + x/λ)) gives:

y = A sin(2πnt), where the resultant amplitude is A = 2a cos (
2πx
​
)

.
λ

The wave is not progressive; it is localized.

Nodes: Points of minimum (zero) amplitude.
Condition: x = (2p − 1) for p = 1, 2, 3, ... λ

4
​
 Distance between two successive nodes is . λ

2
​

Antinodes: Points of maximum amplitude (2a).

Condition: x = p for p = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
λ

2
​

Distance between two successive antinodes is . λ

2
​

Distance between a node and an adjacent antinode is . λ

4
​

The reflection of a longitudinal wave off a rigid wall is shown below.

Harmonics and Overtones

Fundamental Frequency (n): The lowest natural frequency of vibration of a
system. Also called the first harmonic.
Overtones: Frequencies higher than the fundamental frequency. The first
overtone is the next higher frequency, the second overtone is the next, and so
on.
Harmonics: Integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.
Vibrations of Air Column
End Correction (e): The antinode at an open end is formed slightly outside the
pipe. The end correction is e = 0.3d, where d is the inner diameter of the pipe.
Corrected length for a pipe closed at one end: L = l + e .
Corrected length for a pipe open at both ends: L = l + 2e .
Pipe Closed at One End:
A node is formed at the closed end and an antinode at the open end.
Fundamental frequency (1st harmonic): n = v

4L
​

Frequencies of overtones are odd multiples of the fundamental:

n = (2p + 1)n for p = 1, 2, 3...
p

Only odd harmonics are present.

​

Pipe Open at Both Ends:

 Antinodes are formed at both open ends.
Fundamental frequency (1st harmonic): n = v

2L
​

Frequencies of overtones are integral multiples of the fundamental:

n = (p + 1)n for p = 1, 2, 3...
p

All harmonics are present.

​

Vibrations of a Stretched String

The string is fixed at both ends, so nodes are formed at the ends.
Laws of Vibrating String:
1. Law of Length: n ∝ (for constant T and m)
1

l
​

2. Law of Tension: n ∝ T (for constant l and m)​

3. Law of Linear Density: n ∝ (for constant l and T) 1

m
​

Fundamental Frequency: n = 2l
1
​
T

m
​ ​

All harmonics are present: n = (p + 1)n for p = 0, 1, 2...

p ​

Beats
The periodic variation in the intensity of sound when two sound waves of the same
amplitude and slightly different frequencies superpose.

The occurrences of maximum intensity are called waxing, and minimum

intensity are called waning.
One waxing and one waning form one beat.
Beat Frequency (N ): The number of beats heard per second.
N = ∣n1 − n2 ∣ ​

Where n and n are the frequencies of the two sound waves.

1 ​

2 ​

Characteristics of Sound
Loudness: The human perception of the intensity of sound. It is measured in
decibels (dB).
Sound Level β = 10 log ( ) dB, where I = 10 W/m².
10
​
I

I0
​

0
−12

Pitch: The sensation that helps distinguish between high and low frequency
​

notes. It is the human perception of frequency.

Quality (Timbre): The characteristic that distinguishes two sounds of the same
pitch and loudness. It depends on the number and intensity of overtones
present.

💡
Wave Optics 💡
Nature of Light
Corpuscular Nature (Newton): Proposed that light consists of tiny, massless
particles called corpuscles. It could explain reflection and refraction but
predicted that light travels faster in denser media, which is incorrect.
Wave Nature (Huygens): Proposed that light is a wave propagating through a
hypothetical medium called 'ether'. It successfully explained reflection,
refraction, interference, and diffraction. It correctly predicted that light slows
down in denser media.
Dual Nature: In the early 20th century, it was established that light exhibits
both wave and particle (photon) properties, depending on the situation. This is
known as wave-particle duality.
Huygens' Principle
1. Each point on a wavefront acts as a secondary source of light, emitting
secondary light waves called wavelets in all directions.
2. The new wavefront at a later time is the envelope (common tangent) of
these secondary wavelets traveling in the forward direction.

Wavefront: The locus of all points in a medium having the same phase at a
given instant.
Spherical wavefront: From a point source.
Plane wavefront: From a source at a very large distance, or from a
point source placed at the focus of a convex lens.
Reflection and Refraction of Light
Huygens' principle can be used to derive the laws of reflection and refraction.
Reflection at a Plane Surface:
The angle of incidence (i) equals the angle of reflection (r). (i = r)
The incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal lie in the same plane.
Refraction at a Plane Boundary:
Snell's Law: n sin i = n sin r
1 2

The incident ray, refracted ray, and the normal lie in the same plane.
​ ​

Frequency of light remains unchanged when it goes from one medium

to another. Wavelength changes: λ = .n ​
λ0

n
​

Polarization
 The phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of a transverse wave (like light) to a
single direction in a plane perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.

Unpolarized Light: Light in which the electric field vectors vibrate in all possible
directions perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
Plane Polarized Light: Light in which the electric field vectors are restricted to
a single plane.
Polarizer: A material (like a Polaroid sheet) that produces polarized light from
unpolarized light.
Malus' Law: When a beam of completely plane-polarized light is incident on an
analyzer, the intensity (I ) of the transmitted light is:
2
I = I0 cos
​ θ

Where I is the intensity of the incident polarized light and θ is the

0

angle between the transmission axes of the polarizer and the

​

analyzer.
Brewster's Law: When unpolarized light is incident on a transparent surface at
a specific angle called the Brewster's angle (θ ), the reflected light is
B

completely plane-polarized.
​

n2
tan(θB ) = n =
​

​ ​

n1

At Brewster's angle, the reflected and refracted rays are

​

perpendicular to each other.

The diagram below illustrates polarization by reflection at Brewster's angle.
Interference
The modification of the intensity of light resulting from the superposition of two or
more coherent light waves.

Coherent Sources: Sources that emit waves of the same frequency and have a
constant phase difference.
Young's Double Slit Experiment (YDSE): A classic experiment demonstrating
interference of light.
Condition for Constructive Interference (Bright Fringes):
Path difference: Δx = nλ (for n = 0, 1, 2, ...)
Position on screen: y = n
nλD

Condition for Destructive Interference (Dark Fringes):

​ ​

Path difference: Δx = (n − )λ (for n = 1, 2, 3, ...)

1

2
​

Position on screen: y = (n − )
n ​
1

2
​
λD

d
​

Fringe Width (W ): The distance between two consecutive bright or

dark fringes.
λD
W = ​

Diffraction
The bending or spreading of light waves as they pass around the edges of an obstacle
or through a narrow aperture.

It is a result of the interference of many waves from different points on the

same wavefront.
Fraunhofer Diffraction: Occurs when the source and screen are effectively at
infinite distances from the diffracting object. The incident wavefront is plane.
Fresnel Diffraction: Occurs when the source or screen (or both) are at finite
distances. The incident wavefront is spherical or cylindrical.
Fraunhofer Diffraction at a Single Slit
A central bright maximum is observed, which is wider and much more intense
than the other secondary maxima.
Condition for Minima (Dark Fringes):
Path difference between extreme rays: a sin θ = nλ (for n =
±1, ±2, ...)

Position on screen: y =nd

nλD

Condition for Secondary Maxima (Bright Fringes):

​ ​

Path difference: a sin θ = (n + )λ (for n = ±1, ±2, ...)

1

2
​
 Width of Central Maximum: Twice the width of other bright fringes.
2λD
Wc = 2W =
​ ​

Resolving Power
The ability of an optical instrument to distinguish between two closely spaced objects.

Limit of Resolution: The minimum angular separation between two objects that
can be just resolved.
Resolving Power: The reciprocal of the limit of resolution.
Rayleigh's Criterion for Resolution:

Two objects are just resolved when the central maximum of the diffraction
pattern of one source coincides with the first minimum of the diffraction
pattern of the other source.

Resolving Power of a Telescope:

Limit of Resolution: dθ = 1.22λ

D
​

Resolving Power: R = = 1

dθ
​
D

1.22λ
​

D is the diameter (aperture) of the objective lens.

Resolving Power of a Microscope:

Limit of Resolution (minimum resolvable distance): a = λ

2n sin α
​ =
λ
​

2(N.A.)

Resolving Power: R = = 1

a
​
2(N.A.)

λ
​

n sin α is the Numerical Aperture (N.A.).

Electrostatics ⚡
Application of Gauss's Law
Gauss's law, ∮ E ⋅ ds = , can be used to find the electric field for symmetric charge
q

ε0
​

distributions.
​

Field due to a Uniformly Charged Spherical Shell

Outside the shell (r > R): The field is the same as that of a point charge Q at
the center.
 2
1 Q σR
E = ​

2 ​
= 2 ​

4πε0 r ε0 r

On the surface of the shell (r = R):

​ ​

1 Q σ
E = =
4πε0 R2
​ ​ ​

ε0

Inside the shell (r < R): The electric field is zero.

​ ​

E = 0

Field due to an Infinitely Long Straight Charged Wire

Consider a wire with uniform linear charge density λ .
The electric field at a perpendicular distance r from the wire is:
λ
E = ​

2πε0 r

The field is directed radially outward for a positive charge.

​

The diagram below shows the cylindrical Gaussian surface used to calculate the field.

Field due to a Charged Infinite Plane Sheet

Consider a sheet with uniform surface charge density σ .
The electric field at any point near the sheet is uniform and perpendicular to the
sheet.
σ
E = ​

2ε0 ​

Electric Potential and Potential Energy

Electrostatic Potential Energy (U ): The work done against electrostatic forces
to assemble a system of charges from infinity.
For a system of two point charges q and q separated by distance r: 1 ​

2 ​
 1 q1 q2
​ ​

U (r) = ​ ​

4πε0 r

Electric Potential (V ): The electrostatic potential energy per unit charge. It is

​

the work done to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to a point.
U
V = ​

Relation between Electric Field (E ) and Potential (V ):

dV
E = − ​

The electric field is the negative of the potential gradient.

dr

Potential Due to Various Charge Systems

Point Charge: Potential at a distance r from a point charge q .
1 q
V (r) = ​ ​

4πε0 r

Electric Dipole: Potential at a point C at distance r from the center, making an

​

angle θ with the dipole axis.

V (r, θ) = (for a short dipole)
4πε0
1
​
p cos θ

r
2
​

Axial point (θ = 0 or 180 ): V = ±

​

∘ ∘ p

4πε0 r 2
​

Equatorial point (θ = 90 ): V = 0
​

System of Charges: The total potential is the algebraic sum of potentials due
to individual charges.
1 n qi ​

V = ​ ∑ ​ ​

4πε0 ​ i=1 ri ​

Equipotential Surfaces
An equipotential surface is a surface at every point of which the electric potential is the
same.

No work is done in moving a charge along an equipotential surface.

The electric field is always perpendicular to the equipotential surface.
Equipotential surfaces never intersect.
For a point charge, they are concentric spheres.
For a uniform field, they are parallel planes.
Conductors and Insulators
Conductors: Materials that allow electric charge (free electrons) to flow freely.
(e.g., metals, human body).
Electrostatic Properties:
1. Electric field inside a conductor is zero.
2. Electric potential is constant throughout the conductor.
3. Net charge inside a conductor is zero.
4. Electric field just outside is perpendicular to the surface.
 Insulators (Dielectrics): Materials that do not allow electric charge to flow
freely. Electrons are tightly bound to the nuclei.
Electrostatic Shielding: The phenomenon of protecting a region from an
electric field by enclosing it with a hollow conductor (e.g., a Faraday cage).
Dielectrics and Polarization
Dielectrics are insulators that can be polarized by an external electric field.

Polar Molecules: Have a permanent electric dipole moment (e.g., H₂O, HCl).
Non-polar Molecules: Have zero permanent dipole moment; the centers of
positive and negative charge coincide (e.g., H₂, O₂, CO₂).
Polarization
When a dielectric is placed in an external electric field E , it gets polarized. 0

Non-polar molecules: Develop an induced dipole moment.

​

Polar molecules: Permanent dipoles align with the field.

Polarization (P ): The induced dipole moment per unit volume. For linear
isotropic dielectrics, P = χ E , where χ is the electric susceptibility.
e ​

e ​

The polarization creates an internal electric field (E ) that opposes the external p

field.
​

Net field inside the dielectric: E = E − E =

net 0 p
E0 ​

Dielectric Constant (K): The factor by which the electric field is reduced inside
​ ​ ​ ​

a dielectric. Also called relative permittivity (ε ). r ​

K = 1 + χe ​

Capacitors and Capacitance

A capacitor is a device used to store electrical energy. It consists of two conductors
separated by a dielectric.

Capacitance (C ): The ratio of the charge (Q) on one of the conductors to the
potential difference (V ) between them.
Q
C = ​

SI Unit: Farad (F)

V

Parallel Plate Capacitor

Without Dielectric:
ε0 A
C0 =
​

​ ​

d
 With Dielectric Slab (thickness t < d, dielectric constant K ):
ε0 A
C =
​

1 ​

d−t(1− )

With Dielectric filling the entire space (t = d):

​

K ε0 A ​

C = K ⋅ C0 = ​

Combination of Capacitors
Capacitors in Series: The reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance is the sum of
the reciprocals of individual capacitances.
1 1 1 1
​ = ​ + ​ + ⋯ + ​

CS C1 C2 Cn

Capacitors in Parallel: The equivalent capacitance is the sum of the individual

​ ​ ​ ​

capacitances.
CP = C1 + C2 + ⋯ + Cn
​ ​ ​ ​

Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The work done to charge a capacitor is stored as electrostatic potential energy
in the electric field between the plates.
2
1 2 1 Q
U = ​ CV = ​ QV = ​

2 2 2C

Energy Density (u ): Energy stored per unit volume in the electric field.
E ​

1 2
uE = ​ ​ ε0 E ​

Current Electricity 💡
Kirchhoff's Laws
These laws are fundamental for analyzing complex electrical networks.
Kirchhoff's First Law (Junction Rule or Current Law)

The algebraic sum of the currents at any junction in an electrical network is zero.
∑I = 0

This law is based on the conservation of electric charge.

Sign Convention:
Currents arriving at a junction are positive.
Currents leaving a junction are negative.
Kirchhoff's Second Law (Loop Rule or Voltage Law)
 The algebraic sum of the potential differences (products of current and resistance) and
the electromotive forces (emfs) in any closed loop is zero. ∑ I R + ∑ E = 0

This law is based on the law of conservation of energy.

Sign Convention:
1. Across a resistor: Potential difference is negative if traversing in the
direction of current, and positive if traversing opposite to the
current.
2. Across a cell (emf): Emf is positive if traversing from the negative to
the positive terminal, and negative if traversing from positive to
negative.
Wheatstone Bridge
An arrangement of four resistors used to measure an unknown resistance accurately.

The bridge consists of four resistors P , Q, R, S forming a quadrilateral. A

galvanometer is connected between two opposite junctions, and a battery
between the other two.
Balancing Condition: The bridge is balanced when the galvanometer shows
zero deflection (no current flows through it). At this point:
P

Q
=​
R

S
or =
​
R1

R2
​

​
R3

R4
​

If any three resistances are known, the fourth can be determined.

​ ​

The diagram below shows a typical Wheatstone bridge circuit.

Metre Bridge
A practical application of the Wheatstone bridge.
It uses a 1-meter long wire of uniform cross-section.
An unknown resistance X and a known resistance R are connected in the two
gaps.
The balancing point is found by moving a jockey along the wire.
Formula: If the balancing length from one end is l , then the other length is X ​

l
R = 100 − l
​ . X ​

X Resistance of length lX lX
=
​ ​

​
= ​ ​

R Resistance of length lR ​ lR ​

lX
X = R( ​ )
100−lX ​

Potentiometer
A device used for the accurate measurement of potential difference or emf, which does
not draw any current from the circuit it is measuring. It acts as an ideal voltmeter.

Principle: The potential difference between any two points on a uniform

potentiometer wire is directly proportional to the length of the wire between
them, provided a constant current flows through it.
V ∝ l
 V = Kl , where K is the potential gradient (potential drop per unit
length).
Applications of Potentiometer
1. To Compare emfs of two cells:
Individual Method: If l and l are the balancing lengths for cells with 1 ​

2 ​

emfs E and E : 1 ​

2 ​

E1 ​
l1 ​

​ = ​

E2 l2

Sum and Difference Method: If l is balancing length for E

​ ​

1 ​

1 ​
+ E2 ​

and l for E2 ​

1 ​
− E2 :
​

E1 +E2 ​ ​
l1 ​
E1 l1 +l2
​ ​

​ = ​ ⟹ = ​

E1 − E2 l2 E2 l1 − l2

2. To Find Internal Resistance (r) of a Cell:

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

If l is the balancing length for the open cell (emf E ) and l is the
1 ​

2 ​

balancing length when the cell is shunted with a resistance R

(terminal voltage V ):
E l1
r = R( − 1) = R ( − 1)
​

​ ​

V l2

3. Other uses: Voltage divider, audio control, sensor.

​

Galvanometer
A device used to detect weak electric currents in a circuit.

It has a coil pivoted between the poles of a strong magnet. A current causes the
coil to deflect.
The deflection is proportional to the current.
Conversion of Galvanometer
1. Into an Ammeter: To measure current, it must be connected in series. An ideal
ammeter has zero resistance.
Modification: A low resistance, called a shunt (S ), is connected in
parallel with the galvanometer.
S = , where I is the full-scale deflection current, G is
Ig G

I −Ig
​

g ​

galvanometer resistance, and I is the desired range.

​

2. Into a Voltmeter: To measure potential difference, it must be connected in

parallel. An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.
Modification: A very high resistance (X ) is connected in series with
the galvanometer.
− G, where V is the desired voltage range.
V
X = ​

Ig ​
Thermoelectricity
Seebeck Effect: When two different metals are joined to form a closed loop
and the junctions are kept at different temperatures, a small emf (thermo emf)
is produced, and a current flows. This is the principle of a thermocouple.
The thermo emf is given by e = αT + β T , where α and β are thermoelectric
1
​
2

constants.
2

The image below shows a simple thermocouple setup.

Magnetic Fields due to Electric Current 🧲

Lorentz Force
The total force experienced by a charge q moving with velocity v in a region with both
electric field E and magnetic field B .

F = q(E + v × B ) = FE + FM ​ ​

Magnetic Force (F ): F
M ​

M ​ = q(v × B )

Magnitude: F = qvB sin θ

M

Direction is given by the right-hand rule (cross product).

​

The magnetic force is always perpendicular to both v and B .

Key Point: The magnetic force does no work on the charged particle,
so it cannot change the particle's speed or kinetic energy. It only
changes the direction of motion.
Cyclotron Motion
The circular motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field, when its velocity
is perpendicular to the field.

The magnetic force provides the necessary centripetal force: qvB = .

2
mv
​

Radius of circular path: R = mv

qB
=​
p

qB
​

Cyclotron Frequency: The frequency of revolution is independent of the

particle's speed and the radius of its orbit.
qB
f =

Cyclotron Accelerator: A device that uses crossed electric and magnetic fields
​

2πm

to accelerate charged particles to high energies. The electric field accelerates

the particle, and the magnetic field makes it move in a spiral path of increasing
radius.
Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire
A straight wire of length L carrying current I in a uniform magnetic field B
experiences a force:
F = I (L × B )

Magnitude: F = I LB sin θ
For an arbitrarily shaped wire, the force is found by integrating over infinitesimal
length elements: F = ∫ I (dl × B ) .
The net magnetic force on any closed current loop in a uniform magnetic field
is zero.
Torque on a Current Loop
A rectangular current loop with N turns, area A, and current I in a uniform
magnetic field B experiences a torque.
Torque (τ ): τ = N I (A × B ) = m × B
Magnetic Dipole Moment (m): For a current loop, it is defined as:
m = N I An
^

n
^ is a unit vector normal to the plane of the loop, with its direction
given by the right-hand rule.
This torque is the working principle of electric motors and moving coil
galvanometers.
Biot-Savart Law
 This law gives the magnetic field produced by a small current-carrying element.

For a current element I dl, the differential magnetic field dB at a point P, at a

position vector r from the element, is:
μ0 I (dl ×r ) ​

dB =
r3
​ ​

4π

Magnitude: dB = μ0 I dl sin θ

4π
​

r2
​

μ is the permeability of free space (μ T·m/A).

−7
0 ​

0 ​ = 4π × 10

Applications of Biot-Savart Law

Magnetic Field due to a Long, Straight Wire: At a perpendicular distance R
from the wire carrying current I :
μ0 I ​

B = ​

2πR

Force Between Two Parallel Wires: Two long parallel wires carrying currents I 1 ​

and I , separated by distance d, exert a force per unit length on each other.
2 ​

F μ 0 I1 I2
​ ​ ​

Attraction: If currents are in the same direction.

​ ​

L 2πd

Repulsion: If currents are in opposite directions.

Magnetic Field at the Center of a Circular Loop: For a loop of radius R
carrying current I :
μ0 I ​

B = ​

2R

Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Loop: At a distance z from the center
of a loop of radius R:
2
μ0 I R ​

Bz = ​

2 2 3/2
​

2(z +R )

Ampere's Law

The line integral of the magnetic field B around any closed loop (Amperian loop) is
equal to μ times the net current I passing through the area enclosed by the loop.
0 ​

enc ​

∮ B ⋅ dl = μ0 Ienc ​ ​

This law is useful for calculating the magnetic field in situations with high
symmetry.
Applications of Ampere's Law
Solenoid: A long, tightly wound helical coil.
The magnetic field inside an ideal, long solenoid is uniform and
parallel to the axis:
B = μ0 nI ​
 is the number of turns per unit length.
n

The magnetic field outside is practically zero.

Toroid: A solenoid bent into a circular shape.
The magnetic field inside the toroid is:
μ0 N I
​

B = ​

2πR

is the total number of turns, R is the radius of the loop.

N

The field is not uniform across the cross-section. The field outside is
zero.

Magnetic Materials 🧭
Origin of Magnetism
Magnetism in materials originates from the orbital and spin motions of electrons
in atoms.
Orbital Magnetic Moment: An electron revolving around a nucleus is
equivalent to a tiny current loop and possesses an orbital magnetic moment.
e
morbital = − ( ​ ​ )L
2me ​

2me
is the gyromagnetic ratio.
​

Bohr Magneton (μ ): The smallest unit of magnetic moment.

​

B ​

μ B = ​ = 9.274 × 10
4πme
eh
A·m²​
−24

Spin Magnetic Moment: Electrons also have an intrinsic spin angular

​

momentum, which contributes to the magnetic moment.

The net magnetic moment of an atom is the vector sum of all orbital and spin
magnetic moments of its electrons. Atoms with paired electrons often have zero
net magnetic moment.
Magnetization and Magnetic Intensity
Magnetization (M ): The net magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of a
material.
SI Unit: A/m.
Magnetic Intensity (H ): An auxiliary magnetic field that represents the effect
of the external current source, independent of the material.
For a solenoid with n turns per unit length and current I , H = nI .
SI Unit: A/m.
Relation: The total magnetic field (B ) inside a material is the sum of the field
due to the external source (B = μ H ) and the field due to the material's 0 ​

0 ​

magnetization (B = μ M ). m ​

0 ​

B = μ0 (H + M ) ​
 Magnetic Susceptibility (χ ): A dimensionless quantity that measures how a
m

material responds to an external magnetic field.

​

M = χm H ​

Magnetic Permeability (μ): B = μH .

Relative Permeability (μ ): μ = = 1 + χ .
r ​

r ​
μ

μ0 ​
​

m ​

Classification of Magnetic Materials

Property Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic
Cause Induced dipoles Permanent atomic Spontaneous
opposing the field dipoles, randomly alignment of
(orbital motion). oriented. dipoles in domains.
Behavior in Field Weakly repelled. Weakly attracted. Strongly attracted.
Moves from Moves from weaker Moves from weaker
stronger to weaker to stronger field. to stronger field.
field.
Susceptibility (χ ) Small and negative Small and positive Large and positive
(e.g., > 1000)
m

(e.g., -10⁻⁵) (e.g., 10⁻⁵ to 10⁻³)

​

Relative μr < 1 ​ μr > 1 ​ μr ≫ 1

​

Permeability (μ )r ​

Temperature Independent of Obeys Curie's Law: Loses

Dependence temperature. χm ∝
1 ferromagnetism
above Curie
​ ​

Temperature (T )C

and becomes
​

paramagnetic.
Examples Copper, Gold, Aluminum, Calcium, Iron, Cobalt, Nickel,
Bismuth, Water, Si Oxygen, Platinum Gadolinium

Hysteresis

The phenomenon where the magnetization (M ) or magnetic field (B ) in a

ferromagnetic material lags behind the external magnetizing field (H ).

Hysteresis Loop: A plot of B versus H for a ferromagnetic material as it is

taken through a cycle of magnetization.
 Retentivity (or Remanence): The magnetization that remains in the material
after the external field is removed (H = 0).
Coercivity: The reverse magnetizing field required to reduce the residual
magnetization to zero.
The area of the hysteresis loop represents the energy dissipated as heat per
unit volume during one cycle of magnetization.
Types of Ferromagnetic Materials
Soft Ferromagnets (e.g., Soft Iron):
High permeability, low retentivity, low coercivity.
Small hysteresis loop area (low energy loss).
Used for making electromagnets and transformer cores.
Hard Ferromagnets (e.g., Steel, Alnico):
High permeability, high retentivity, high coercivity.
Large hysteresis loop area.
Used for making permanent magnets.
Magnetic Shielding
The process of protecting a region from magnetic fields by surrounding it with a
material of high magnetic permeability (like soft iron).

The magnetic field lines are "channeled" through the material, leaving the
enclosed space largely field-free. This is used to protect sensitive instruments.

Electromagnetic Induction ⚡
Faraday's Laws of Induction
First Law (Qualitative)

Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit, an induced
electromotive force (emf) is produced in the circuit.

Second Law (Quantitative)

The magnitude of the induced emf produced in the circuit is directly proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
 dΦB
∣e∣ ∝
​

dt

In SI units, ∣e∣ = dΦB

dt
​

Lenz's Law and Conservation of Energy

The direction of the induced current in a circuit is such that the magnetic field produced
by the induced current opposes the change in the magnetic flux that induces the
current.

Lenz's law is a consequence of the law of conservation of energy.

It provides the negative sign in Faraday's law:
dΦB
e = −
​

dt

For a coil with N turns: e = −N dΦB

dt
​

Motional EMF
The emf induced in a conductor moving through a magnetic field.

Translational Motion: For a conductor of length l moving with velocity v

perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B :
The induced emf is e = Blv .
This arises from the Lorentz force acting on the free charges within
the conductor.
Rotational Motion: For a conducting bar of length L rotating with angular
velocity ω about one end in a uniform magnetic field B perpendicular to the
plane of rotation:
The induced emf between the ends of the bar is e = BωL . 1

2
​
2

AC Generator
A device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy using the principle of
electromagnetic induction.

A coil (armature) is rotated in a uniform magnetic field, causing a continuous

change in the magnetic flux linked with it.
The induced emf varies sinusoidally with time:
e(t) = e0 sin(ωt) ​

Where e 0 ​ = NBAω is the peak value of the emf.

 N is the number of turns, B is the magnetic field, A is the area of the
coil, and ω is the angular frequency of rotation.
This produces an alternating current (AC).
Self-Inductance and Mutual Inductance
Self-Inductance (L)

The phenomenon where a changing current in a coil induces an opposing emf in the
same coil. This property of a coil to oppose a change in current is called self-inductance
or electrical inertia.

The magnetic flux linked with the coil is proportional to the current: Φ = LI . B ​

The induced emf is: e = −L . dI

SI Unit: Henry (H).

​

dt

Self-inductance of a long solenoid: L = μ n Al, where n is turns per unit 0 ​

2

length, A is cross-sectional area, and l is length.

Energy Stored in an Inductor: The energy stored in the magnetic field of an
inductor carrying current I .
1 2
UB = ​ ​ LI
2

Energy Density: u
2
B
B ​ = ​

2μ0 ​

Mutual Inductance (M )

The phenomenon where a changing current in one coil (primary) induces an emf in a
neighboring coil (secondary).

The flux in the secondary coil (Φ ) is proportional to the current in the primary 21 ​

coil (I ): Φ = M I .
1 ​

21 ​

21 ​

1 ​

The induced emf in the secondary coil is: e = −M . 2 ​

21 dt
​
dI1 ​

By symmetry, M = M = M . 12 21

Coefficient of Coupling (K): A measure of how much flux from one coil links
​ ​

with another.
M = K L1 L2 ​ ​

0 ≤ K ≤ 1 . K = 1 for perfect coupling.

Transformer
 A device used to change the voltage of an alternating current from a low value to a high
value (step-up) or vice versa (step-down). It works on the principle of mutual
inductance.

It has two coils, primary and secondary, wound on a common soft iron core.
Transformer Equation: For an ideal transformer (100% efficient):
Vs ​ Ns ​
Ip ​

​
= ​
= ​

Vp Np Is

: Primary and secondary voltages.

​ ​ ​

Vp , Vs ​ ​

N , N : Number of turns in primary and secondary coils.

p ​

s ​

I , I : Primary and secondary currents.

p ​

s ​

Step-up Transformer: N > N ⟹ V > V and I < I . s ​

p ​

s ​

p ​

s ​

p ​

Step-down Transformer: N < N ⟹ V < V and I > I . s ​

p ​

s ​

p ​

s ​

p ​

AC Circuits ⚡
Average and RMS Values
For a sinusoidal AC voltage e = e 0 ​ sin(ωt) and current i = i 0 ​ sin(ωt + ϕ) :
Peak Value (e , i ): Maximum value in either direction. 0 ​

0 ​

Average (Mean) Value (over half a cycle):

2
eavg = ​ ​
e0 ≈ 0.637e0 ​ ​

π
2
iavg = i0 ≈ 0.637i0

Average value over a full cycle is zero.

​ ​ ​ ​

Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Value: The effective value of AC, which produces

the same heating effect as a DC of that value.
e0 ​

erms = ​ ​ ≈ 0.707e0 ​

2 ​

i0
irms = ≈ 0.707i0
​

​ ​ ​

Meters measure RMS values. Household voltage (e.g., 230 V) is the

​

RMS value.
Phasors
A phasor is a rotating vector that represents a quantity varying sinusoidally with time.
The length of the phasor represents the peak value, and its projection on a fixed axis
gives the instantaneous value.

Phasors simplify the analysis of AC circuits by allowing vector addition of

harmonically varying quantities.
The diagram below shows a phasor diagram representation.

AC Circuits with Individual Components

Component Reactance/Resistance Phase Peak Current (i ) 0

Relationship
​

Resistor (R) Resistance R Voltage and current i0 =

e0 ​

are in phase (ϕ =
​ ​

0).

Inductor (L) Inductive Current lags i0 =

e0 ​

Reactance X voltage by (90°).

​ ​

XL ​

π
L ​ = ​

ωL = 2πf L

Capacitor (C) Capacitive Current leads i0 =

​
e0 ​

Reactance X voltage by (90°).

XC ​

π
C ​
= ​

2
1 1
​ = ​

ωC 2πf C

Series LCR Circuit

Impedance (Z): The total effective opposition to the flow of AC. It is the vector
sum of resistance and reactance.
2 2
Z = R + (XL − XC ) ​ ​ ​

SI Unit: Ohm (Ω)

Phase Angle (ϕ): The phase difference between voltage and current.
XL − XC
tan ϕ =
​ ​

Current: i rms ​ =
erms

Z
​

​
Power in AC Circuits
Instantaneous Power: p(t) = e(t) ⋅ i(t)
Average Power (P ): The average power dissipated over one complete cycle.
avg ​

Pavg = erms irms cos ϕ

​ ​

Power Factor (cos ϕ): The factor that determines the true power dissipated in
the circuit.
R
cos ϕ = ​

For a purely resistive circuit, ϕ = 0, cos ϕ = 1, P = e i . avg ​

rms ​

rms

For a purely inductive or capacitive circuit, ϕ = ±90 , cos ϕ = 0, ∘

P avg= 0 . The current is called wattless current.

​

LC Oscillations and Resonance

LC Oscillations
In an ideal LC circuit (zero resistance), energy oscillates between the electric
field of the capacitor and the magnetic field of the inductor.
The capacitor charges and discharges, creating a current that builds a magnetic
field in the inductor, which then collapses to recharge the capacitor with
opposite polarity. This process repeats, creating electrical oscillations.
Electric Resonance

Resonance occurs in an AC circuit when the applied frequency matches the natural
frequency of the circuit, leading to a maximum or minimum response.

Series Resonance:
Occurs when X = X . L ​

C ​

Impedance is minimum (Z = R).

Current is maximum.
Resonant Frequency (f ): f = r ​

r ​

2π
1

LC
​

The circuit is purely resistive and is called an acceptor circuit

​

because it allows maximum current at this frequency.

Parallel Resonance:
Occurs when the net reactance is infinite (in an ideal parallel LC
circuit).
Impedance is maximum.
Current is minimum.
Resonant frequency is the same as for series resonance.
The circuit is called a rejector circuit.
The graph below shows resonance curves for different resistance values.

Quality Factor (Q-factor): A measure of the sharpness of the resonance.

ωr ωr L 1
Q = = =
​ ​

​ ​ ​

Bandwidth R ωr CR

A higher Q-factor means a sharper, more selective resonance curve.

​

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter ⚛️

The Photoelectric Effect
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface when radiation of an
appropriate frequency is incident on it.

Photosensitive surface: The surface that emits electrons.

Photoelectrons: The emitted electrons.
Work Function (ϕ ): The minimum energy required to pull an electron out of a
0

metal from its surface. It is a property of the metal.

​

Key Experimental Observations

1. Threshold Frequency (ν ): For a given metal, electrons are emitted only if the
0 ​

incident frequency is greater than a certain minimum frequency, ν . No 0

electrons are emitted below this frequency, no matter how intense the light.
​
 2. Instantaneous Emission: There is no time lag (< 10⁻⁹ s) between the incidence
of light and the emission of electrons.
3. Intensity and Photocurrent: For ν > ν , the photocurrent is directly 0

proportional to the intensity of the incident light.

​

4. Kinetic Energy: The maximum kinetic energy (K E ) of the photoelectrons max

depends on the frequency of the incident light and the material, but not on the
​

intensity.
5. Stopping Potential (V ): The minimum negative (retarding) potential applied to
0

the collector to stop the photocurrent completely.

​

K Emax = eV0 ​ ​

V0 increases linearly with the incident frequency but is independent

​

of intensity.
Einstein's Photoelectric Equation
Classical wave theory failed to explain the observations of the photoelectric effect. In
1905, Einstein proposed that light consists of discrete packets of energy called photons.
Energy of a Photon: E = hν = hc

λ
​

h is Planck's constant (6.626 × 10 J·s). −34

Photoelectric Equation: When a photon of energy hν strikes an electron, it

gives all its energy to the electron. A part of this energy (ϕ ) is used to 0 ​

overcome the work function, and the rest becomes the maximum kinetic energy
of the electron.
K Emax = hν − ϕ0
​ ​

Using K E max ​ = eV0 ​ and ϕ 0 ​ = hν0 :

​

h ϕ0 ​

eV0 = hν − hν0 ⟹ V0 = ν −

This equation successfully explains all observations of the photoelectric effect.

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

e e

The graph below shows the linear relationship between stopping potential and incident
frequency for different metals.
Wave-Particle Duality
Light and other electromagnetic radiations exhibit a dual nature. They behave
as waves in phenomena like interference and diffraction, and as particles
(photons) in phenomena like the photoelectric effect and Compton scattering.
Properties of Photons:
Energy: E = hν
Momentum: p = = = E hν h

Electrically neutral.
​ ​

c c λ

Rest mass is zero.

Always travel at the speed of light.
De Broglie Hypothesis
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that matter, like radiation, also has a dual nature. A
moving material particle has a wave associated with it.

De Broglie Wavelength (λ): The wavelength of the matter wave associated

with a particle of momentum p .
h h
λ = ​ = ​

p mv

For a particle with kinetic energy E : λ = k ​

h

2mEk
​

For an electron accelerated through a potential difference V :

​ ​

1.228
λ(in nm) = ​

V (in volts) ​

Davisson and Germer Experiment

 This experiment, conducted in 1927, confirmed the wave nature of electrons.
They observed that a beam of electrons scattered by a nickel crystal produced
a diffraction pattern, similar to X-ray diffraction.
The experimentally measured wavelength of the electrons matched the
theoretical de Broglie wavelength, thus validating de Broglie's hypothesis.
This TEM image of a carbon nanotube filled with water showcases the application of the
de Broglie wavelength concept.

Structure of Atoms and Nuclei ⚛️

Atomic Models
1. Thomson's Model (Plum-Pudding Model): Proposed that an atom is a sphere
of uniform positive charge with electrons embedded in it. It could not explain
 the results of the Geiger-Marsden experiment.
2. Rutherford's Model (Nuclear Model): Based on the alpha-particle scattering
experiment, Rutherford proposed:
The entire positive charge and most of the atom's mass are
concentrated in a tiny, dense central core called the nucleus.
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits.
Difficulties: According to classical physics, an accelerating electron
should continuously radiate energy, causing it to spiral into the
nucleus and the atom to collapse. It also couldn't explain atomic
spectra.
Atomic Spectra
When a gas is heated, it emits radiation at specific, discrete wavelengths,
forming a line spectrum.
For hydrogen, these spectral lines are grouped into series: Lyman (UV), Balmer
(Visible), Paschen (IR), Brackett (IR), Pfund (IR).
Rydberg's Formula: The wavelengths of these lines are given by:
1 1 1
= R( − )
n2 m2
​ ​ ​

R is the Rydberg constant (1.097 × 10 m⁻¹). 7

n and m are integers, with m > n .

Bohr's Atomic Model for Hydrogen

Bohr modified Rutherford's model by incorporating quantum concepts through three
postulates:
1. Electrons revolve in circular orbits where the electrostatic force provides the
centripetal force.
2. Electrons can only revolve in stable orbits where their angular momentum is an
integral multiple of . h

2π
​

h
L = me vn rn = n ​ ​ ​ ​

Electrons in these orbits do not radiate energy.

2π

3. An electron emits a photon of energy hν = E − E when it jumps from a m ​

n ​

higher energy orbit (m) to a lower energy orbit (n).

Key Results of Bohr's Model
Radius of the n-th orbit:
2 2 2
n h ε0 n
rn = = a0
​

πme Z e2
​ ​ ​ ​

nm is the Bohr radius (radius of the first orbit of

​

a0 = 0.053

hydrogen).
​

Energy of the n-th orbit:

 eV
2 4 2
me Z e Z
En = − = −13.6
​

2 2 2
n2
​ ​

8ε n h

The negative sign indicates that the electron is bound to the nucleus.
​

The ground state (n=1) has the lowest energy.

The diagram below shows the energy levels and transitions for the hydrogen atom.
Energy level diagram for hydrogen atom showing
various spectral series.
De Broglie's Explanation: De Broglie suggested that stable orbits are those
where the circumference is an integral multiple of the electron's de Broglie
wavelength, forming a standing wave. 2πr = nλ . This provides a theoretical
n

basis for Bohr's second postulate.

​

The Atomic Nucleus

Constituents and Terminology
The nucleus is made of protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons.
Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons.
Neutron Number (N): Number of neutrons.
Mass Number (A): Total number of nucleons. A = Z + N .
Nuclide Notation: X A
Z
​

Isotopes: Nuclei with the same Z but different N (e.g., H , H , H ). 1

1
​
2
1
​
3
1
​

Isotopes: Nuclei with the same A but different Z (e.g., H , He). 3

1
​
3
2
​

Isotones: Nuclei with the same N but different Z (e.g., H , He). 3

1
​
4
2
​

Size and Density of Nucleus

The radius of a nucleus is related to its mass number by:
R = R A 0 ​ , where R ≈ 1.2 × 10 m (1.2 fm).
1/3
0 ​
−15

Nuclear density is remarkably constant for all nuclei, approximately 2.3 × 10 17

kg/m³, which is extremely high.

Nuclear Force (Strong Force)
The force that binds nucleons together.
Properties:
1. Strongest of the four fundamental forces.
2. Short-ranged (effective only up to a few fm).
3. Charge-independent (acts equally between p-p, n-n, and p-n).
Nuclear Binding Energy
 Mass Defect (Δm): The mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the
masses of its constituent nucleons. This difference is the mass defect.
Δm = [Z mp + (A − Z )mn ] − Mnucleus
​ ​ ​

Binding Energy (E ): The energy equivalent of the mass defect. It is the

B

energy released when a nucleus is formed, or the energy required to break a

​

nucleus into its constituent nucleons.

2
EB = (Δm)c
​

Binding Energy per Nucleon (E B /A

​ ): A measure of the stability of a nucleus.
Nuclei with higher E B /A​
are more stable. The curve peaks around A=56 (Iron).
The following graph shows the binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number.

Radioactive Decays
The spontaneous emission of particles or radiation from an unstable nucleus to become
more stable.

Alpha (α) Decay: Emission of an alpha particle ( 4

2
He
​ nucleus).
A A−4 4
X → Y + He

Occurs in heavy nuclei (A > 210).

Z Z −2 2
​ ​ ​

Beta (β ) Decay:
Beta-minus (β ) Decay: Emission of an electron (e ) and an
− −

antineutrino (νˉ). A neutron converts into a proton.

−
n → p + e + ν
ˉ
A A −
X → Y + e + ν
ˉ
Z Z +1
​ ​

Beta-plus (β ) Decay: Emission of a positron (e ) and a neutrino (ν

+ +

). A proton converts into a neutron.

+
p → n + e + ν
A A +
X → Y + e + ν
Z Z −1
​ ​
 Gamma (γ ) Decay: Emission of a high-energy photon (γ -ray). Occurs when a
nucleus in an excited state transitions to a lower energy state.
A ∗ A
X → X + γ
Z Z
​ ​

Law of Radioactive Decay

The rate of decay (activity) of a radioactive sample is proportional to the number of
undecayed nuclei present at that time.

Decay Law: N (t) = N 0e ​

−λt

N (t) is the number of nuclei at time t .

N is the initial number of nuclei.
0 ​

λ is the decay constant.

Activity (A): The rate of decay.

dN −λt
A(t) = − ​ = λN (t) = A0 e ​

SI unit: Becquerel (Bq), where 1 Bq = 1 decay/second.

dt

Half-life (T ): The time taken for the number of nuclei to reduce to half its
1/2
​

initial value.
ln(2) 0.693
T1/2 = ​ ​
≈ ​

λ λ

Average Life (τ ): The average lifetime of a nucleus.

1 T1/2 ​

τ = ​ = ​

λ ln(2)

Nuclear Energy
Energy released in nuclear reactions.
Nuclear Fission

The process in which a heavy nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei, releasing a
tremendous amount of energy.

Example: Fission of Uranium-235 by a slow neutron.

$^{235}{92}U + ^1_0n \rightarrow ^{236}{92}U^* \rightarrow ^{141}
{56}Ba + ^{92}{36}Kr + 3(^1_0n) + Q$
Chain Reaction: The neutrons released in one fission can cause fissions in other
nuclei, leading to a self-sustaining chain reaction.
Nuclear Reactor: A device where controlled nuclear fission is carried out to
produce energy.
Nuclear Fusion
 The process in which two or more light nuclei fuse together to form a heavier nucleus,
releasing energy.

This is the energy source of stars, including the Sun.

Example: Fusion of four protons to form a helium nucleus in the Sun.
1 4 +
4(1 p) →2 He + 2e + 2ν + Q

Fusion requires extremely high temperatures (thermonuclear fusion) to

​ ​

overcome the electrostatic repulsion between nuclei.

Semiconductor Devices 🔌
p-n Junction Diode as a Rectifier
A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). A
p-n junction diode allows current to flow in only one direction (when forward biased),
which enables rectification.

Half-Wave Rectifier
Uses a single diode to convert AC to DC.
The diode conducts only during the positive half-cycles of the AC input and
blocks the negative half-cycles.
The output is a pulsating DC, with only positive pulses.
Efficiency is low (max 40.6%) as half of the input AC cycle is lost.
Output frequency is the same as the input frequency.
Full-Wave Rectifier
Uses two diodes (in a center-tapped transformer setup) or four diodes (in a
bridge rectifier setup).
It rectifies both the positive and negative half-cycles of the AC input.
The output current flows through the load in the same direction for both halves
of the input cycle.
The output is a pulsating DC with a smoother waveform than a half-wave
rectifier.
Efficiency is higher (max 81.2%).
Output (ripple) frequency is twice the input AC frequency.
Filter Circuits
 The output of a rectifier is a pulsating DC, containing an undesirable AC
component called a ripple.
A filter circuit is used to remove this ripple and produce a smoother DC output.
A common filter is a capacitor filter, where a capacitor is connected in parallel
with the load.
The capacitor charges during the rising part of the DC pulse and
discharges slowly through the load during the falling part, thus
smoothing out the fluctuations.
Special Purpose Junction Diodes
Zener Diode

A heavily doped p-n junction diode designed to operate in the reverse breakdown
region.

Principle: It works on the principle of Zener breakdown, where a high reverse

electric field breaks covalent bonds, creating a large number of charge carriers
and a sharp increase in reverse current.
Key Property: In the breakdown region, the voltage across the Zener diode (V Z

) remains almost constant, even for large changes in the reverse current.
​

Application: Used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant DC output

voltage, regardless of variations in the input voltage or load current.
It is connected in reverse bias, in parallel with the load. A series
resistor is used to limit the current.
This diagram shows a Zener diode used as a voltage regulator.

Photodiode
 A p-n junction diode that converts light energy into electrical energy. It generates a
current when exposed to light.

Operation: It is operated in reverse bias.

When light (photons with energy > band gap) falls on the junction, it creates
electron-hole pairs in the depletion region.
The electric field in the depletion region separates these carriers, generating a
reverse current.
The magnitude of this photocurrent is proportional to the intensity of the
incident light.
Dark Current: A small reverse current that flows even when the diode is not
illuminated.
Applications: Light detectors, counters, burglar alarms, fiber optic
communication.
Solar Cell (Photovoltaic Cell)

A p-n junction device that converts solar energy directly into electrical energy. It works
as a source of DC power.

Principle: Photovoltaic effect.

When sunlight strikes the junction, it creates electron-hole pairs.
The built-in electric field of the depletion region separates these carriers,
accumulating positive charges on the p-side and negative charges on the n-side.
This creates a voltage across the cell.
When connected to an external load, a current flows.
Made from materials like Silicon (Si), Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), etc.
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

A heavily doped p-n junction diode that emits light when forward biased.

Principle: Electroluminescence.
When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the n-side and holes from the
p-side are injected into the junction.
They recombine in the junction region, releasing energy in the form of photons.
The color (wavelength) of the emitted light depends on the band gap of the
semiconductor material used (e.g., GaAsP for red/yellow, GaN for blue).
Advantages: Energy efficient, long lifetime, rugged, fast switching, and
excellent color rendering.
 Applications: Indicator lamps, displays, lighting (bulbs, street lights), optical
communication.
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
A semiconductor device with three doped regions and two p-n junctions, used for
amplification and switching. It is a current-controlled device.

Types:
1. n-p-n transistor
2. p-n-p transistor
Three Regions:
1. Emitter (E): Heavily doped. Supplies majority carriers.
2. Base (B): Very thin and lightly doped. Controls the flow of current.
3. Collector (C): Moderately doped and largest in size. Collects the
majority carriers.
Working Principle: In the active mode, the emitter-base (E-B) junction is
forward biased, and the collector-base (C-B) junction is reverse biased.
A small base current (I ) controls a much larger collector current (I
B C

).
​ ​

The emitter current is the sum of the base and collector currents:
I = I
E ​ + I . B ​

C ​

Current Gains:
Common-Emitter Current Gain (β ): β = . Typically, β is large IC

IB
​

(20-200).
​

Common-Base Current Gain (α): α = . Value is slightly less than

IC

IE
​

1.
​

Relation: β = α

1−α
​

Transistor as an Amplifier (Common Emitter Configuration)

An amplifier increases the strength (amplitude) of a signal.
The CE configuration is most commonly used because it provides high current
gain and high voltage gain.
A small AC input signal applied to the base causes a small change in the base
current (I ). B ​

This small change in I results in a much larger change in the collector current (
B ​

I ) due to the transistor's current gain (β ).

C ​
 This large change in I flows through a load resistor (R ), producing a large,
C L

amplified output voltage.

​ ​

The output voltage is 180° out of phase with the input voltage.
This diagram shows a typical CE amplifier circuit.

Logic Gates
A logic gate is a basic building block of a digital circuit, which has one or more inputs
and a single output. The output is a logical function of the inputs.

Analog Signal: A continuously varying signal.

Digital Signal: A signal that has only two discrete values (e.g., HIGH/1 and
LOW/0).
Truth Table: A table that defines the function of a logic gate by listing all
possible input combinations and their corresponding outputs.
Boolean Expression: A mathematical statement describing the relationship
between inputs and output.
Gate Symbol Boolean Description
Expression
NOT NOTYGate
= Aˉ Inverter; output is
the opposite of the
input.
OR OR
Y =Gate
A + B Output is HIGH if
any input is HIGH.
AND AND
Y =Gate
A ⋅ B Output is HIGH
only if all inputs are
 HIGH.
NAND NAND
Y =Gate
A ⋅ B Inverted AND;
output is LOW only
if all inputs are
HIGH.
NOR NOR
Y =Gate
A + B Inverted OR; output
is HIGH only if all
​

inputs are LOW.

XOR XOR
Y =Gate
A ⊕ B Exclusive OR;
output is HIGH if
the inputs are
different.
Universal Gates: NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates because any
other logic gate can be constructed using only NAND gates or only NOR gates.