Parts of a Neuron

Seno, Kian Nathalie​

BS MLS 1A – ANAPHY 1.​ Cell Body (Soma/Perikaryon)
○​ Contains a single nucleus with prominent nucleolus.
○​ Organelles include:
■​ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
NERVOUS SYSTEM (also called Nissl bodies) → site of
protein synthesis.
FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ■​ Golgi apparatus
■​ Mitochondria
■​ Other cellular organelles necessary
1.​ Sensory Input – Sensory receptors monitor numerous external
for cell metabolism.
and internal stimuli that may be interpreted as touch, temperature,
○​ Responsible for the general maintenance and
taste, smell, sound, blood pressure, and body position. Action
metabolic functions of the neuron.
potentials travel from the sensory receptors to the spinal cord and
2.​ Dendrites
brain where they are interpreted.
○​ Cytoplasmic extensions branching from the cell
2.​ Integration – The brain and spinal cord are the major organs for
body.
processing sensory input and initiating responses.
○​ Function: Receive information (stimuli) from other
3.​ Homeostasis – This function depends on the ability of the nervous
neurons or sensory receptors and transmit toward the
system to detect, interpret, and respond to changes in internal and
cell body.
external conditions.
3.​ Axon
4.​ Mental Activity – The brain is the center of mental activity such as
○​ A single long cytoplasmic process that extends
consciousness, memory, and thinking.
from the cell body.
5.​ Control of Muscles and Glands – Skeletal muscles contract only
○​ Function: Conducts action potentials away from the
when stimulated by the nervous system. The nervous system also
cell body toward other neurons or effector cells
participates in controlling cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and
(muscle, gland).
many glands.
○​ Ends in axon terminals (synaptic knobs) that
release neurotransmitters.

DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

●​ Central Nervous System (CNS) – consists of the brain and spinal

cord.
●​ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – consists of nerves and
ganglia.

PNS Functional Divisions

●​ Sensory Division – transmits action potentials to the CNS.

●​ Motor Division – carries action potentials away from the CNS.

Motor Division Subdivisions

●​ Somatic Motor Nervous System (SNS) – innervates skeletal

muscle and is mostly under voluntary control.
●​ Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) – innervates cardiac muscle,
smooth muscle, and glands, and is mostly under involuntary
control.
○​ Sympathetic Division – prepares body for
“fight-or-flight” responses.
○​ Parasympathetic Division – regulates
“rest-and-digest” functions.
○​ Enteric Division – specific network within the
digestive system controlling gastrointestinal activity. CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Types of Neurons
Neuron (Nerve Cell)
Type Structure Location
●​ Definition: Basic structural and functional unit of the nervous
system. Multipolar Several dendrites and Motor neurons; CNS
●​ Function: Receive stimuli and transmit action potentials to other one axon neurons
neurons or effector organs.
 Bipolar One dendrite and one Eye (retina), nose
axon (olfactory)

Unipolar Single axon only Sensory neurons

(PNS)

CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Neuroglia (Supporting Cells)

Cell Type Description Function Location

Astrocytes Star-shaped Provide CNS

cells structural
support for
blood vessels;
form and
regulate the
Blood-Brain
Barrier (BBB)

Ependymal Squamous Line the CNS

Cells epithelial-like ventricles of the
cells brain and
central canal of
spinal cord;
help circulate
cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF)

Microglia Small, mobile Act as immune CNS

cells defense;
become THE SPINAL CORD
phagocytic Definition & Function
during infection
or inflammation
●​ The spinal cord is the major communication link between the
brain and the PNS inferior to the head.
Oligodendrocy Branching cells Form myelin CNS ●​ It integrates incoming information and produces responses
tes with processes sheaths around through reflex mechanisms.
wrapping axons multiple axons;
enclose
unmyelinated
axons Anatomical Extent

Schwann Cells Elongated glial Surround axons PNS ●​ Extends from the foramen magnum to the level of the second
cells in PNS; form lumbar vertebra (L2).
myelin sheaths
or enclose
unmyelinated
axons Internal Organization

Organization of Nervous Tissue Region Description

Gray Matter Central portion, organized into

●​ Gray Matter horns (anterior, posterior, and
○​ Consists of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and lateral). Contains neuron cell
unmyelinated axons. bodies, dendrites, and
○​ Forms: interneurons.
■​ Cortex (outer surface) in the brain
■​ Nuclei (clusters of cell bodies) in the
brain White Matter Peripheral portion, organized into
■​ Ganglia in the PNS nerve tracts (ascending and
●​ White Matter descending pathways). Contains
○​ Consists of myelinated axons. myelinated axons.
○​ Forms:
■​ Nerve tracts in the CNS
■​ Nerves in the PNS Spinal Nerves

●​ Roots of spinal nerves extend out of the spinal cord:

○​ Dorsal Root – contains sensory (afferent) fibers.
○​ Ventral Root – contains motor (efferent) fibers.
●​ Each pair of dorsal and ventral roots join to form a spinal nerve.
 Inferior End Structures

Structure Description Level/Function

Conus medullaris Cone-like tapering Inferior end at L2

region of spinal cord

Cauda equina Numerous roots of Extend from

spinal nerves lumbosacral
resembling a horse’s enlargement & conus
tail medullaristo exit from
L2–S5

THE SPINAL CORD

GENERAL STRUCTURE
Extent and Growth

●​ The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum to the level of
the second lumbar vertebra (L2).
ELECTRICAL SIGNALS AND NEURAL PATHWAYS
●​ It is shorter than the vertebral column because it does not grow
Reflexes
as rapidly during development.

●​ Definition: An involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus

applied to the periphery and transmitted to the CNS.
Segments
●​ Reflex Arc: Neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs.
○​ It is the basic functional unit of the nervous system.
●​ Composed of: ○​ Smallest and simplest pathway capable of receiving
○​ Cervical a stimulus and producing a response.
○​ Thoracic
○​ Lumbar
○​ Sacral Components of Reflex Arc
●​ Named according to the portion of the vertebral column from which
their nerves enter and exit.
1.​ Sensory receptor – detects the stimulus
2.​ Sensory neuron – transmits impulse to CNS
3.​ Interneurons – process information in CNS
Spinal Nerves 4.​ Motor neuron – carries impulse away from CNS
5.​ Effector organ – muscle or gland that responds

●​ 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord.

●​ They exit the vertebral column through intervertebral and sacral
foramina. Spinal Cord Reflexes
●​ Each spinal nerve consists of:
○​ Bundle of axons
○​ Schwann cells 1.​ Knee-jerk reflex – occurs when the quadriceps femoris muscle
○​ Connective tissue sheaths is stretched.
●​ Nerves from lower segments descend a distance in the vertebral 2.​ Withdrawal reflex – removes a body part from a painful stimulus.
canal before exiting (because the spinal cord is shorter than the
vertebral column).

Diameter and Enlargements

●​ Spinal cord is larger in diameter at its superior end, gradually

decreasing inferiorly.
●​ Two enlargements occur where nerves for limbs enter/exit:
1.​ Cervical enlargement – inferior cervical region;
nerves supplying upper limbs.
2.​ Lumbosacral enlargement – inferior thoracic,
lumbar, and superior sacral regions; nerves supplying
lower limbs.
 Cerebellum is attached to the brainstem. It is involved in balance, maintenance
of muscle tone and coordination of fine motor movement.

BRAIN: Brainstem and Diencephalon

SPINAL NERVES

●​ Exit regions: Cervical, Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacral.

●​ Grouped into: Plexuses (network of nerves).

Types of Plexuses

1.​ Cervical plexus – supplies neck, head, diaphragm

2.​ Brachial plexus – supplies upper limbs
3.​ Lumbosacral plexus – supplies lower limbs

BRAIN: Diencephalon and Cerebrum

Diencephalon consists of:

1.​ Thalamus – main sensory relay system; influences mood;

registers unlocalized, uncomfortable pain.
2.​ Epithalamus – contains pineal body; plays a role in
puberty/sexual orientation.
3.​ Hypothalamus – maintains balance/homeostasis.

BRAIN

BRAIN: Cerebrum and Cerebellum

BRAIN: Brainstem and Cerebellum

Brainstem connects the spinal to the brain. It consists of the following:
1. Medulla oblongata - which controls the heart rate, breathing, swallowing and
balance.
2. Pons - contains relay nuclei between the cerebrum and cerebellum.
3. Midbrain - is involved in hearing and visual reflexes.
Reticular formation are nuclei scattered throughout the brainstem which is
important in regulating cyclical motor functions and involved in maintaining
consciousness and in sleep-wake cycle.
BRAIN: Cerebral Hemispheres ●​ Nuclei – clusters of gray matter deep inside brain.
●​ Cerebral medulla (white matter) – tracts connecting cortex and
CNS.
○​ Association fibers – connect areas within same
hemisphere.
○​ Commissural fibers – connect two hemispheres.
■​ Largest: Corpus callosum.
○​ Projection fibers – connect cerebrum to brainstem &
spinal cord.
■​ Form internal capsule.

The Cerebrum
General Features

●​ Largest portion of the brain.

○​ Weight: ~1200 g (females), ~1400 g (males).
●​ Brain size correlates with body size, not intelligence.
●​ Divided into left and right hemispheres by the longitudinal fissure.

Surface Structures

●​ Gyri (gyrus) – folds that increase surface area of the cortex.

●​ Sulci (sulcus) – grooves between gyri.
●​ Central sulcus – runs superior → inferior, midway along brain.
○​ Precentral gyrus (anterior) – primary motor cortex.
○​ Postcentral gyrus (posterior) – primary somatic
sensory cortex.

Lobes of the Cerebrum

1.​ Frontal lobe

○​ Voluntary motor function.
○​ Motivation, aggression, sense of smell, mood.
2.​ Parietal lobe
○​ Receives & evaluates most sensory input (except
smell, hearing, taste, vision).
○​ Separated from frontal lobe by central sulcus.
3.​ Occipital lobe
○​ Receives and integrates visual input.
○​ Not distinctly separated from other lobes.
4.​ Temporal lobe
○​ Receives/evaluates smell & hearing input.
○​ Important in memory.
○​ Anterior & inferior parts ("psychic cortex"): abstract
thought & judgment.
○​ Separated by lateral fissure.
○​ Insula (hidden lobe) – deep in fissure; evaluates
taste; sometimes called the fifth lobe.

Gray and White Matter

●​ Cerebral cortex – outer gray matter.

○​ Contains neuron types: fusiform, stellate, pyramidal
cells.
○​ Arranged in layers.
Sensory Processing & Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex ●​ Spinocerebellar Tract – proprioception to cerebellum.

Motor Functions & Cerebrospinal Fluid

Motor Functions

●​ Upper Motor Neuron (UMN)

○​ Cell bodies in the cerebral cortex.
●​ Lower Motor Neuron (LMN)
○​ Cell bodies in the anterior horn of spinal cord gray
matter.

Descending Tracts

●​ Direct Tracts
○​ Responsible for muscle tone and skilled voluntary
movements of the hands and trunk.
●​ Indirect Tracts
○​ Responsible for movement coordination, posture,
balance, and movements in response to visual
reflexes.

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

●​ Definition: Clear fluid, similar to blood serum but with most

proteins removed.
●​ Functions:
○​ Bathes the brain & spinal cord.
○​ Provides a protective cushion (shock absorption).
○​ Allows the brain to float, preventing direct pressure
on skull/dura.
Sensory Processing ○​ Supplies some nutrients to CNS tissues.
●​ Production:
○​ 80–90% produced in lateral ventricles.
●​ Association Areas: located adjacent to primary sensory areas; ○​ Remainder produced in 3rd & 4th ventricles.
responsible for recognition. ○​ Formed by specialized ependymal cells + support
●​ Somatic Sensory Association Area – posterior to primary tissue + blood vessels = Choroid Plexuses.
somatic sensory cortex.
●​ Visual Association Area – anterior to visual cortex.
○​ Compares current sensory input with past CSF: cerebrospinal fluid - bathes the brain and S.C.
experiences (“Have I seen this before?”).
○​ Works with frontal lobe to assign emotional value to
visual input.
○​ Explains why perceptions differ among individuals
(e.g., same painting viewed differently).

Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

●​ Primary Motor Cortex (Precentral Gyrus)

○​ Controls voluntary movements, especially fine
motor skills (hands).
○​ Topographic arrangement:
■​ Feet – superior & medial regions.
■​ Face – inferior region.
○​ ~30% of upper motor neurons located here.
●​ Premotor Area (anterior to primary motor cortex)
○​ Staging area for organizing motor functions before
initiation.
○​ Determines which muscles contract, order, and
intensity.
●​ Prefrontal Area (most anterior)
○​ Association area for motivation, foresight,
emotional behavior, and mood regulation.
○​ Large development in humans → explains emotional
complexity & advanced planning ability.

Sensory Functions (Ascending Tracts )

●​ Spinothalamic Tract – pain, temperature, light touch, pressure,
tickle, itch.
●​ Dorsal Column – proprioception, touch, deep pressure, vibration.
CRANIAL NERVES
 ●​ Definition: Part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
that regulates involuntary functions of smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and glands.
●​ Divisions:
1.​ Sympathetic Division – active during stress,
emergencies, or physical activity.
2.​ Parasympathetic Division – active during rest,
relaxation, and digestion.
●​ Function: Maintains homeostasis by regulating heart
rate, breathing rate, body temperature, digestion, and urinary
functions.
●​ Role in activity:
1.​ Active state: Skeletal muscles require more energy.
2.​ Resting state: Digestive tract and other organs need
more energy.
●​ Target structures: Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle,
glands.

Comparison: Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System

Feature Somatic Nervous Autonomic Nervous

System (SNS) System (ANS)

Control Voluntary (conscious) Involuntary

(unconscious)

Effector Organs Skeletal muscles Smooth muscle,

cardiac muscle, glands
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS)

Neurons Involved 1 motor neuron from 2 neurons in series:

CNS to effector Preganglionic (CNS →
ganglion) +
Postganglionic
(ganglion → effector)

Neurotransmitter Always excitatory Can be excitatory or

Effect inhibitory

Example Moving your arm Heartbeat, digestion,

(voluntary movement) sweating
SYMPATHETIC VERSUS PARASYMPATHETIC ACTIVITY

●​ The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) innervates most organs

through sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers.
●​ Examples of dually innervated organs: gastrointestinal tract,
heart, urinary bladder, reproductive tract.
●​ Exceptions: Sweat glands and blood vessels are innervated
almost exclusively by sympathetic neurons.

Dual Innervation

●​ One division may be more predominant than the other.

●​ Example:
○​ GI tract – parasympathetic innervation is more
extensive and exerts greater influence.
●​ When both divisions innervate a single organ:
○​ Sympathetic division → major influence during
physical activity or stress.
○​ Parasympathetic division → major influence during
resting conditions.

Sympathetic Division

●​ Not inactive during rest; it maintains blood pressure and body

temperature.
●​ During exercise:
○​ Shunts blood and nutrients to active structures.
○​ Decreases activity of nonessential organs.
●​ Known as the “fight-or-flight response.”