ROAD ENGINEERING – DETAILED NOTES
1. TYPES OF SURVEYS FOR LOCATION OF A ROAD
A. Reconnaissance Survey:
• Purpose: To study general topography and find possible routes.
• Tools used: Binoculars, topo maps, satellite imagery.
• Avoid: Steep slopes, deep valleys, marshy areas, high embankment zones.
• Output: Preliminary alignment options.
B. Preliminary Survey:
• Chain, compass, levelling, total station used.
• Collect detailed data on ground features.
• Draw preliminary plan & longitudinal section.
C. Detailed / Final Location Survey:
• Centerline fixed on ground.
• Pegs placed at every 50–100m.
• Cross-sections taken at 10–30m interval.
• Final drawings prepared for construction.
2. POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED DURING RECONNAISSANCE
SURVEY
• Physical features: Hills, rivers, valleys, forests.
• Shortest and most economical route.
• Avoid steep gradients and sharp curves.
• Soil type: Avoid black cotton soil and unstable slopes.
• Hydrology: Flood levels, drainage direction.
• Availability of materials nearby.
• Position of towns, villages, utilities.
• River crossings: Prefer narrow points.
• Environmental restrictions (protected land).
• Future development and traffic forecast.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
A. Based on Traffic Volume:
• National Highways (NH)
• State Highways (SH)
• Major District Roads (MDR)
• Other District Roads (ODR)
• Village Roads (VR)
B. Based on Pavement Type:
• Earthen → temporary rural roads.
• Gravel → low traffic.
• WBM → base course for bituminous roads.
• Bituminous (Flexible pavement) → most common.
• Concrete (Rigid pavement) → heavy traffic.
C. Based on Location:
• Rural Roads
• Urban Roads
D. Based on Load:
• Light, Medium, Heavy traffic roads.
4. TERMS USED IN ROAD ENGINEERING
• Carriageway: Width for vehicle movement.
• Shoulder: Provided at edges for emergencies.
• Right of Way: Total land width acquired.
• Camber: Cross slope for drainage, 2–3% typical.
• Gradient: Longitudinal slope (rise/run).
• Super Elevation: Raising outer edge on curves.
• Sight Distance: Distance visible to driver.
• Median: Divider between opposite traffic.
• Embankment: Raised structure built with fill.
5. ALIGNMENT OF ROADS
Good Alignment Must Have:
• Shortest possible route.
• Easy gradients.
• Minimum sharp curves.
• Good sight distances.
• Balanced earthwork (cutting = filling).
• Minimum structures like bridges, culverts.
• Safety and comfort for drivers.
Horizontal Alignment:
• Straight lines, circular curves, transition curves.
Vertical Alignment:
• Consists of gradients and vertical curves.
6. FACTORS CONTROLLING ROAD ALIGNMENT
A. Length of Road:
• Shorter = less cost + travel time.
• But shortest route may have steep slopes → avoid.
B. Height of Embankment:
• Needed in low-lying and flood areas.
• High embankment increases cost.
C. Depth of Cutting & Filling:
• Deep cutting in hills is costly.
• Fills must be compacted in layers.
• Balanced earthwork reduces cost.
D. Safety:
• Proper sight distance at curves and summits.
E. Drainage:
• Alignment must ensure natural drainage flow.
7. ROAD GRADIENTS
Types:
• Ruling Gradient: Normal gradient (3–5%).
• Limiting Gradient: Used when unavoidable (5–7%).
• Exceptional Gradient: Short stretches only (7–10%).
• Minimum Gradient: For drainage (0.5–1%).
Importance:
• Determines fuel consumption.
• Affects vehicle speed.
• Impacts safety on hills.
8. SUPER ELEVATION
Definition:
• Outer edge of road is raised on curves to counter centrifugal force.
Formula:
e + f = V² / (127R)
(Maximum super elevation = 7%)
Where:
e = super elevation
f = side friction
V = speed (km/hr)
R = radius of curve (m)
Steps in Providing Super Elevation:
1. Rotation about inner edge or centerline.
2. Providing transition curve.
3. Raising outer edge gradually.
9. CUTTING & FILLING (EARTHWORK)
Cutting:
• Removing earth to bring road to required formation.
• Common in hilly areas.
Filling:
• Adding earth to raise road level.
• Needs proper compaction (95–98% Proctor density).
Balanced Earthwork:
• Soil from cut used in fill → reduces cost.
Side Slopes:
• Provide stability to embankment or cutting.
Typical Values:
• Embankment slope: 2H:1V or 1.5H:1V depending on soil.