PRESENT TENSES

PRESENT SIMPLE

 We use the present simple to state truth and to describe things which we feel are facts or
permanent situations.

Eg: Broken bones in adults don’t heal as fast as they do in children (Facts)

A colony of Antartic penguins lives in Marwell Zoo (Permanent situation)

 To describe things that happen on regular basis (we often use adverbs of frequency such
as always, usually, often, sometimes, never)

Eg: Our two chefs provide an excellent choice of hot meals every day

 Describe a series of events or actions (eg. To give direction or instructions) often with the
impersonal you.

Eg: From here you cross the road, go through an iron gate and follow the past west...

 Past: To give more immediacy to something happened (newspaper headlines)

Eg: Teacher dies of a heart attack when his students jump out the window.
 Present: To talk about habitual actions in the present
Eg: I always get up at 8.00
 Future: To talk about the future of time table
Eg: The break begins at 11.00

PRESENT CONTINOUS

 To commenting (football match)

 To describe an action in progress at the moment of speaking
 To express annoyance: It expresses annoyance on the part of the speaker and persistence
on the part of the doer of the action. With adverbs of frequency like forever, perpetually,
always, continually.
 - Past continuous
- Will + always
- Wish + would
 Future time  Arrangements
 Predictions: going to (predictions with evidence)
 Temporary actions: Eg: you are being stupid;
 There are a number of verbs which we don´t use in the continuous:
 Verbs of existing or being: Be, Consist of, Contain, exist
 Verbs of possessing: Belong to, have(own), include, lack, possess, own
 Verbs of feeling or wanting: Dislike, envy, hate, adore, love, need, pity, trust,
prefer, want,

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  Verbs thinking or believing: Believe, expect, feel(think), forget, imagine, intend,
recognize, remember, see, think, understand,
 Verbs of appearance: Appear, resemble, seem
 Other verbs: Concern, depend, fit, matter, mean, mind and weigh

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE

[HAVE/HAS + PAST PARTICIPLE]

 To talk about states that started in the past and is still continuing in the present.

Eg: The film has already started – I have started to study English

 We often use the prepositions FOR: (period of time) SINCE: (point of time)

 Actions which happened in the past but may happen again in the future. The period of
time is unfinished or it may be repeated.

 “Already”  affirmative “Yet”  Negative – questions

 I haven`t finished my homework yet. / Have you tidied your room yet?

 I`ve already finished my assignment

 An action completed in the past which has some relevance to the present i.e.: there is a
present result of the action.

 I have broken my leg / I have lost my keys

 I broke my leg last week /

 Common adverbs: Just, recently, lately/so far

 When the time is INDEFINITE

 To talk about experiences. I have eaten Chinese food/ I have never travelled abroad

 Messi has scored more than 650 goals / Maradona scored 500 goals.

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINOUS

[HAS/HAVE +BEEN + PRESENT PARTICIPLE (ING FORM)]

Eg: Bob has been doing a lot of work for charities since the mid-eighties

 To talk about an ongoing state or action which began in the past and is still continuing or
has just finished

Eg: I’ve been sleeping all day

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  To focus on the duration of an action so we don’t mention the number of times that we
have done the action.

Eg: I’ve called you five times this morning

 Can suggest that the state or action may change i.e. It’s temporary.

 To express a present result.

Eg: The test result is much better. It’s clear you’ve been revising

PAST TENSES

PAST SIMPLE: REGULAR/IRREGULAR VERBS

 Describe a single completed action in the past

 For actions which happened at the same time an also for repeated actions

 For sequences of actions

 Describe state in the past

PAST CONTINOUS

[WAS/WERE + VERB+ING]

 Describe an action in progress at a point of the time in the past.

 Show that a past action was temporary or was changing or developing.

Eg: During my training I was earning a lot than my life (A temporary situation)

His symptoms were becoming more pronounced each day (A changing situation)

 Describe an ongoing action which forms the background or setting to past events.

Eg: We were watching the sky and listening for the first sounds of the down chorus

 To contrast an ongoing action with a single event which interrupt it.

 Describe past arrangements; The arranged event may or may not have taken place.

Eg: Nancy was taking the next flight to Paris so she had to cut short the interview

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PAST PERFECT

[HAD + PAST PARTICIPLE]

 Describe an action which is completed before a time in the past. We can include a specific
time reference

Eg: By the time the UN Task force arrived, the rebel forces had taken the province

 For repeated actions

 Describe a state which existed before a past event.

Eg: At the time of her trial last year Hinkley had been in prison for 8 months

 To make a sequence of events clear. We use it for the earlier action and the past simple
for the later.

Eg: When we got back the babysitter went home

When we got back the babysitter had gone

 “Just or Already” : To show that the earlier action was recent or earlier than expected

 “Before + Past Perfect”: The action in the past happens first.

Eg: I left university before I’d taken the final exams

 With verbs such as: Hope- expect –want – plan- think – about – wish To describe past
intentions which were unfulfilled.

PAST PERFECT CONTINOUS

[HAD BEEN + PRESENT PARTICIPLE]

 Describe an ongoing situation or action which continued up to, or stopped just before a
time in the past.

Eg: He had been working for over an hour before the auditors turned up

 To focus on duration.

Eg: Tom had been travelling for more than 12 hours

USED TO/ WOULD

[+ INFINITIVE]

Eg: Supermarkets didn’t use to open on Sundays

 Both describe actions which happened regularly in the past but no longer happen (or vice
versa) or new happen with more or less frequency.

Eg: They used to get paid every 3 months (Now the get paid weekly)

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 We Would get up early every Sunday. Which have changed (We don’t now)

 Used to: Describe past states which have changed.

Eg: I didn’t use to pay the taxes

BE USED TO

Be used to can refer to the past, present or future. It means “be accustomed to” or “be familiar
with”

BE USED TO + NOUN OR NOUN PHRASE: I work in a food restaurant, so I am used to lots of

customers.

BE USED TO + PRONOUN: She was brought up in the countryside and hates pollution. She´s not
used to it.

BE USED TO + THE ING FORM OF A VERB: He was a surgeon until he retired, so he was used to
working in demanding situations.

GET/BECOME USED TO

Become accustomed to something or doing something: College life can be very stressful, but don´t
worry. You will soon get used to it.

THE FUTURE

WILL:

o Predictions WITHOUT EVIDENCE: Robots will control the world in 2050

o Decision at the time of speaking:

Eg: You look tired. I’ll cook dinner tonight

o Threats: I will kill you!

o Promise: I will love you forever

o Offers: That bag looks heavy… I will carry them for you!

GOING TO:

o The future of intention: (for actions that have already been decided on)

o Something that is already planned.

Eg: He is going to study environmental law next year

o Predictions with evidence:

Eg: Look at those black clouds. It´s going to rain

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PRESENT CONTINOUS:

o The future of arrangements:

Eg: We’re seeing a musical at the theatre next week

PRESENT SIMPLE:

o The future of timetables:

Eg: The car comes at 11 to collect the guest speakers and they arrive at the hall at 11.30

The plane leaves at 7.00 am

Future Continuous  An action in the future that will happen/ Result of an arrangement in the
past. Eg: Trains won’t be running between East Putney and Putney Bridge this weekend due to
essential track repairs

By this time, next week I will be lying on the beach.

Future Perfect  The idea of an action that starts and finish in the future (Action in the future)

Eg: I will have bought a house by the end of 2022

BE DUE TO:

o Timetable (future events); It’s possible that the timetable may change:

Eg: New measures to contain asylum seekers are due to come into force on 1st August but a case
currently before the European court may delay this until the autumn

BE TO:

o Official arrangements in the future:

Eg: The President is to hold an official reception for the visitors

o BE (NOT) TO +INFINITIVE: Formal commands and instructions.

Eg: You are not to disturb the head teacher while the inspectors are here next week

BE ABOUT TO:

o Event that we expect to happen in a near future.

Eg: Ladies and gentlemen. Please take your seats. The performance is about to start

BE LIKELY/UNLIKELY TO:

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 o Both follow by infinitive. “Likely” is used to say that something in the future is probable
and “Unlikely” means that it is improbable that something will happen.

Eg: The payment is likely to take ten days. Please contact us if it doesn’t arrive within that time
(Probable)

Eg: They’re unlikely to arrive before 6. The traffic is always awful on Fridays (Improbable)

Future in the Past

[WAS/WERE (DUE) TO + PRESENT INFINITIVE]

 We don’t know if the event happened or not.

Eg: The exam results were (due) to arrive at the school today. We can ring tomorrow to find out
whether they have arrived

[WAS/WERE (DUE) TO + PERFECT INFINITIVE]

 Tells us that the event did not occur.

Eg: The exam results were (due) to have arrived at the school today but apparently the exam board
has not posted them yet

COMPARATIVE FORMS:

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES

 Adjectives with one syllable

- Comparative: Adjective + - er (+than)

- Superlative: The + adjective + -est

 Adjectives with two or more syllables

- Comparative: More + adjective

- Superlative: The most + adjective

 Irregular adjectives:

Good/bad (C= better/worse, S= the best/the worst)

Far (C= further/farther, S= furthest/farther)

Old (C= older/elder, S= oldest/eldest)

 Two syllables adjectives ending in –ly –y –ow –r and –l and the adjectives common,
handsome, mature, pleasant, polite, simple and stupid can have either more and most or –
ed and –est

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The photographer wanted something more lively (or livelier)

 Comparatives and superlatives can be made stronger or weaker by inserting a word or

phrase in front of them:

 Comparatives:

Strong: Even, (very) much, far, a lot, lots [informal], considerably, a great deal [formal] +
comparative.

Weaker: A little, slightly, a bit [informal], somewhat [formal] +comparative.

 Superlatives:

Stronger: By far, easily [informal] + superlative

Weaker: One of, some of + superlative

 To say that two things are equal we can use patterns like is + no + comparative or is not +
only + comparative:

The fishburger is no more expensive than the hamburger

ADJECTIVES WITH AS, SO TOO, ENOUGH AND SUCH

 We can say that two things are equal by using as + adjective + as. To make more emphatic
this comparison we use JUST

 To say that things are almost equal we use just about, about, almost, nearly.

 To make negative comparison we use not as/so + adjective + as:

The hot dog isn’t expensive as the hamburger

 Another type of ‘comparison’ is when we describe the result of a particular quality or

characteristic:

- So + adjective + (that) clause:

I’m afraid I can’t identify her. It was so dark (that)I couldn’t see her face.

- Too + adjective + (for/to phrase)

It was too dark (for me) (to see her face)

- (Not) adjective + enough + ( for/to phrase)

It wasn’t light enough (for me)(to see her face)

 As /such to introduce a comparison

- As + adjective + a + noun + as:

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It wasn’t as bad as I expected

- Such a + adjective + noun + as (for that clause):

It wasn’t such a bad result as I had expected

OTHER TYPES OF COMPARISON

 When we contrast two related qualities, we always use “more”

I’m more sad than disappointed

- We can also use “not so much...as” or “rather than”

 When we describe something by comparing it to something else which has similar qualities
:

- As + adjective + as:

Listening to her was about as interesting as watching paint dry

- Like + noun or verb phrase:

The cruise ship was like a skyscraper lying on its side

 WE USE like BEFORE A NOUN WHEN WE ARE MAKING COMPARISON BETWEEN TWO
THINGS WHICH SEEM SIMILAR.

You look like a man who’s seen a ghost!

DOUBLE COMPARATIVES:

WE USE DOUBLE COMPARATIVES FOR EMPHASIS AND TO SHOW CONTINUAL CHANGE.

I am becoming BETTER AND BETTER at chess

THE LATER it got, THE MORE WORRIED she became.

ARTICLES: A, AN, THE, ZERO ARTICLE

We use a/an:

 to refer to things in general, as an example of a type of thing

Sarah likes to eat an apple a day.

 with singular countable nouns mentioned for the first time I've always wanted to
go on a skiing holiday.

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  with jobs, some illnesses, some numbers

She's a chef; I've got a sore throat; you've told me a million times!

 in set phrases or expressions a couple of, twice a week, a few problems, once in a
while

THE

We use “the” to refer to specific things or things that have already been mentioned.

He goes to the gym twice a week.

That's the boy I was talking about.

We also use it:

 when there's only one. the sun, the moon, the Earth

 for superlatives. You're the best!

 for some important buildings. the town hall, the theatre

 for some countries, rivers, deserts, seas, oceans.

the United Kingdom (the UK), the Netherlands, the United States, the Thames, the Sahara, the
Pacific

 for plural names of mountain ranges. the Alps, the Pyrenees

 for newspapers, inventions, musical instruments.

The New York Times

Who invented the computer? I play the guitar.

 with an adjective to mean a particular group of people. the rich, the poor, the
unemployed, the young, the French, etc.

ZERO ARTICLE

We use zero article:

 for uncountable nouns or plural nouns, unless we are referring to a specific case.

Rob usually asks his best friend for advice.

BUT

The advice you gave me was really helpful.

 for most continents, countries, cities, lakes, streets, mountains, shops, restaurants,
individual people.

Scotland, Paris, London, Oxford Street, Ben Nevis

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  for games, sports, languages and school subjects.

We're learning Italian. I love football.

 for some institutions, unless we are just visiting.

We don't have to go to school tomorrow, it's a holiday. My mother is coming to the school to talk
to the teacher.

 for some set expressions. on foot, by train, on holiday, at noon

-ING FORMS AND INFINITIVES

-ING FORMS

 -Ing can have their own subjects and objects:

Eg: I’m looking forward to my wife returning (Subject + -ing form)

Meeting new people is one benefit of taking evening classes (-Ing form + object)

 We can use determiners (the, this) possessives (Peter’s) possessives adjectives (his)
object pronouns (him); before –ing forms.

 WE OFTEN USE THE OBJECT PRONOUN AFTER SENSE VERBS:

Have you seen us performing yet?

 WHEN WE USE THE + ING FORM AND WE WANT TO LINK IT WITH AN OBJECT, WE
USE OF:

The giving of presents is a traditional past of the Christmas festivities

 We also use –ing forms as adjectives.

Eg: The remaining items will be sold in our January sale.

 Many adjectives and nouns are followed by a preposition + -ing form

Eg: Lara isn’t capable of lying and she has no reason for not telling the truth

INFINITIVES

 Infinitives with to can be the subject, object or complement of a verb

Eg: To give is better than to receive. Everyone loves to win

 We make a negative with not + infinitive:

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Eg: I tried not to look at the accident

 We can use an infinitive to describe the purpose or reason of an action

 FOR before the infinitive when the subject of the infinitive is different from the
subject of the sentence

 We also use infinitives after too and enough to talk about results

Eg: There isn’t enough (food) to go around, I’m afraid

 Many adjectives can be followed by TO + INFINITIVE

Eg: The Bensons are lucky to be having such good whether

Adjective + to + infinitive: (Able/unable, afraid, anxious, bound, careful, certain, crazy,

curious, due, fit, eager, happy, impossible, likely, lucky, pleased, right, shocked, stupid,
sure, surprised, thrilled, welcome, wrong)

 Many nouns can be followed by TO + INFINITIVE

Eg: She’s finally made a decision to leave

Nouns + to + infinitive: (Attempt, bid, decision, desire, incentive, need, opportunity, place,
pleasure, reason, time, and wish)

 WE CAN USE A NOUN + TO + INFINITIVE AFTER THERE IS/ARE AND HAVE (GOT) TO
EXPRESS AN OBLIGATION:

Don’t disturb me; I’ve got a report to write this evening

VERBS FOLLOWED BY –ING FORMS AND INFINITIVES

 Certain verbs can be followed by an –ing form, but not by an infinitive

Eg: I avoid travelling in the rush hour whenever possible

Verbs + ing form: (Admit, appreciate*, avoid*, can’t help*, consider, defer, delay, detest*,
dislike*,endure*, enjoy*, excuse*, finish, give up, imagine*,involve*, keep (on), leave off,
mention*, mind*, miss*, postpone, practice, prevent*, put (sb) off, recommend, resent*,
resist*, risk*, save, suggest, tolerate*, understand*)

 Certain verbs are only followed by an -ing form when they have an object

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Eg: In ‘Hamlet’ the prince discovers Polonius hiding behind the curtains

Verb + object + -ing form: (Catch, discover, feel, find, hear, leave, notice, observe, see,
spot, and watch)

 THE VERBS ALLOW, ADVISE, FORBID, PERMIT ARE FOLLOW BY AN –ING FORM
WHEN THEY HAVE NO OBJECT, BUT AN INFINITIVE WHEN THEY HAVE AN OBJECT:

The doctor advise taking a course of antibiotics

The doctor advised him to take a course of antibiotics

 Certain verbs can be followed by an infinitive, but not by an –ing form

Eg: She’s decided to apply for the job

Verb + infinitive: (Afford, agree, aim, appear, ask*, beg*, attempt, care, choose*, dare*,
decide, demand, expect*, fail, fight, forget, guarantee, happen, help*, hope, intend*,
manage, need*, offer, plan, prepare, pretend, promise, propose, prove, refuse, seem,
swear, tend, threaten, trouble*, try, vow, wait, wish*, want*)

*Can also have an object before the infinitive.

 Some verbs are followed by an infinitive only when they have an object

Eg: They forced us to open our suitcases

Verb + object + to + infinitive: (Advise, allow, cause, command, encourage, forbid, force,
get, instruct, invite, leave, oblige, order, permit, persuade, recommend, remind, request,
teach, tell, tempt, urge, warn)

 Some verbs can be followed by an –ing form or an infinitive, with no difference in

meaning

Eg: I can’t stand to see/seeing animals in pain

Verb + -ing form or infinitive: (Attempt, begin, bother, can’t bear, can’t stand, cease,
continue, deserve, fear, hate, intend, like (enjoy), love, prefer, start

- TO + INFINITIVE: after would like, would love, would hate

 Some verbs can be followed by an –ing form or by to +infinitive, but there is a

difference in meaning :

 Forget/ Remember:

- ING: something you done in the past

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 - TO + INFINITIVE: something you have to do in the future

 Go on:

- ING: continuing doing an activity

- TO + INFINITIVE: change of activity

 Mean:

- ING: involves – entails – implies

- TO + INFINITIVE: you have the intention

 Regret:

- ING: sorry about something you did in the past

- TO + INFINITIVE: sorry about something you are going to do (It is used with
verbs of telling)

 Stop:

- ING: stop doing an action

- TO + INFINITIVE: you stop doing something to do another thing (You focus

on the activity/ on the change of the activity)

 Try:

- ING: experiment something new when everyone else has failed

- TO + INFINITIVE: implies effort

PASSIVES, CAUSATIVES AND GET

PASSIVE VOICE:

 It is used :
- When the agent is not important
- When the agent is not known. Eg: She was murdered
- When the agent is obvious from the context or from general knowledge. Eg: She
has been sacked

TENSES IN THE PASSIVE

We use:

• Present simple passive (e.g., is/are + past participle). The best feta cheese is made in
Greece.

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• Present continuous passive (e.g., is/are + being + past participle). Prices are being
dramatically reduced during the sales.

• Past simple passive (e.g., was/were + past participle). The hotel was built in the 1990s.

• Past continuous passive (e.g., was/were + being + past

participle).

The local stray cats were being chased by a large dog.

• Present perfect passive (e.g., has/have + been + past participle). She has been awarded a
medal for her work with children in need.

• Past perfect passive (e.g., had + been + past participle). TI le block of Nis had been
constructed on an old bridge.

• Future (e.g., will/won't + be + past participle).

The agreement won't be signed until next year.

• Modal verbs + passive (e.g., modal, e.g. could, should, must,

etc. + be + past participle).

You might be asked to speak at the next meeting.

• Passive infinitive (e.g., to be + past participle). Trish hopes to be voted in as class

president.

• Passive -ing form (e.g., being + past pal ticiple): Jhon was not happy about being criticised.

THE USE OF BY

We use by if we want to show who is doing the action. The money was raised by three boys in my
class.

We do not need to use by when the person doing the action is obvious, unknown or unimportant.

The photos of the concert were put up on social media.

REPORTED STRUCTURES WITH THE PASSIVE

We can use verbs like believe, claim, know, report, say, suppose, think to talk about what people
say or believe generally:

• It is said/believed, etc. + that + clause. It is said that young people today are experts in
technology!

• He is said/thought/known + to + infinitive.

She is said to be an expert photographer.

• They are said/believed + to + have + past participle OR + to + be + -ing.

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The students are reported to have protested about college fees.

The art gallery is believed to be expanding its area of interest.

 When we are reporting speech, we can use a passive form of the reporting verb.
 Subject + passive verb + to + infinitive:
He was said to be innocent. He was asked to leave
 It + passive verb + that clause:
It was said that was innocent

 Verbs describing states: have (own), be, belong, lack, resemble, seem CANNOT BE IN THE
PASSIVE. Verbs followed by to + infinitive has the same rule (want, love, hate + object +
infinitive)
Eg: He was wanted to leave She wanted him to leave
 GET  alternative to Be (describe actions not states)
Eg: How did he get hurt? (How he was hurt?)

PASSIVE – ING FORMS AND INFINITIVES

[HAVING BEEN + PAST PARTICIPLE] / [BEING + PAST PARTICIPLE]

 Refer to the past after certain verbs which are followed by –ing form
Eg: We regret not having been shown/not being shown the Acropolis (We regret the fact
that the tour guide didn´t show us the Acropolis)
 Infinitive: To be + past participle
 Perfect form: To have been + past participle

HAVE/GET + OBJECT + PAST PARTICIPLE

 We use have something done when someone else completes an action for us. We would
not normally say who did the action, but we can add by to emphasise who did it for a
particular reason.
 We had the house painted
Eg: I had the washing machine repaired yesterday
Do you get your hair done at Ebony’s?
I had my house painted by some teenagers from the local school.
The school is going to have a new theatre built.
I might have all my work finished by Friday.
We didn't have all the photos printed - it was too expensive.
 Have + object + infinitive:
Eg: I had the mechanic repair my washing machine
Get + object + to + infinitive:
Eg: I will get the hairdresser to do my hair this afternoon

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  Some verbs that take two objects,(e.g., give, show can have two different forms of the
passive): The book was given to me. / I was given the book.
 Make requires to in the passive: We were all made to help.
 There is no passive form of let somebody do something. Use allowed to instead: The
students weren't allowed to have an outdoor concert.
 “Let” has no passive form. “Allowed” implied permission: Eg: I was let to go
 We can also use this structure when describing something had that had happened to us.
Example: He had his ID stolen from his pocket.
 Other related forms include:
 Get something done (get + object + past participle): Lynn got her bike fixed really quickly.
 Have somebody do something (for you) (have + object + infinitive without to): I had Dad
put up some shelves in my room.
 Get somebody to do something (for you) (get + object + to infinitive): My friends got me
to design the invitations for the party.
 Something needs doing (need + -ing) / needs to be done (need + to be + past participle):
Examples: I know my handwriting needs improving so I'm going to work on that.
Fortunately, the background music doesn't need recording - my friend Jay said he'll do
that.
There are so many things that need to be done. I don't know where to start!

 IN PASSIVE VOICE YOU HAVE TO RETAIN THE PREPOSITION.

REPORTED SPEECH
DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

 Direct speech: The exact words are between inverted commas. We don’t use that to
introduce it.
 Indirect speech: In conversation as we don’t have punctuation to clearly signal what is the
reported speech. We use it for statements, questions and commands.

Indirect statements

 Introductory verbs used to report statements, which are often followed by that ( say, tell,
continue, answer, reply, mention, remark, add)
 We can use an indirect object after say, but we use a direct object after tell
Eg: He said (to us)that his mobile phone has been out of action all day
He told us that his mobile phone had been out of action all day
 We can report thoughts using : think, decide or imagine
 When we report another person’s words in indirect speech we often have to change the
pronouns used in the direct speech:
Eg: James added, “I really don’t understand the problem”
James added that he really didn’t understand the problem.

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  Time of Reporting: If the place or time is different from the original, we need to make
changes to adverbs of place and time.
Eg: Alex said, ‘I’ll meet you here again tomorrow at 3.30
Alex said she would meet us there again the next day at 3.30
 Indirect speech after a past tense reporting verb we use a tense one step further
(‘backshift´)

 THE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE AND CONTINOUS DON’T CHANGE

 We don’t usually change the tense when:

- The action in the indirect speech is still happening or going to happen:
Eg: I’m working on the details of a tentative settlement  The negotiator said he is
working on the details of a tentative settlement (He is still working in the details)
- The reported verb expresses a fact or situation that cannot or is unlikely to
change:
Eg: He told us that counseling is not the answer for everyone
- The verb comes after a time conjunction: eg, when – after
Eg: Martin replied that he had started the job immediately after he left school

 OUGHT TO, USED TO, COULD, MIGHT, WOULD AND SHOULD DON’T CHANGE WHEN
REPORTED.

INDIRECT (REPORTED) QUESTIONS

 Common verbs for reporting questions: ask, want to know

Eg: The assistant asked what type of printer we had, but I don’t know
Laura wanted to know if anybody had reported the missing person
 We introduced indirect closed questions with if and whether:
Eg: Lester wondered if/whether there was anything better in life
 In indirect open questions we use a question word:
Eg: The nurse asked when exactly the pain had started

INDIRECT COMMANDS AND REQUESTS

 Verbs used to report commands are tell, order, command and forbid (negative)
Eg: When the vet had finished, he told them to let the animal sleep
 “Ask” for reporting requests and “Beg or urge” with urgent requests:
Eg: His secretary asked me to come back later
 We can use ask for + passive infinitive if we don’t mention the person to whom the
command was given:
Eg: The cinema manager asked for the culprit to be brought to his office

REPORTING VERBS AND THEIR PATTERNS

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  There are different patterns used after reporting verbs:

Verb only: (Agree, apologize, refuse)

Eg: I’m really sorry’  She apologized.

Verb + (that) clause: (Accept, add, admit, advise, agree, announce, answer*, believe, assume,
conclude, declare, deny, explain, imagine, imply, know, mention, reply*, promise, notice, say,
continue*, doubt, recommend, remark, suggest, insist. (* = That is obligatory)

Eg: ‘I hacked into de company’s accounts system’  He admitted (that) he had hacked into the
company’s accounts system.

Verb + object + that clause: (Advise, assure, inform, reassure, warn, tell, remind)

Eg: ‘Don’t worry. You’ll arrive on time’  She reassured me that I would arrive on time.

Verb + to infinitive: (Agree, demand, guarantee, offer, propose, refuse, threaten, volunteer,
vow)

Eg: ‘We’ll pick up the children, if you like’ She offered to pick up the children.

Verb (+ optional subject) + to infinitive: (Ask [sb], beg [sb], expect [sb], promise [sb] )

Eg: ‘Please let me stay’  She begged us to let her stay.

Verb + object + to + infinitive: (Advise, allow, command, encourage, expect, forbid, implore,
instruct, invite, order, permit, persuade, remind, request, tell, urge, warn)

Eg: ‘You shouldn’t say anything’  I advised him not to say anything.

Verb + object + to + infinitive + complement: (Assume, believe, claim, consider, declare,

expect, feel, find, presume, suppose, think, understand)

Eg: ‘Muhammad Ali was the greatest boxer ever’  She considers Muhammad Ali to have
been the greatest boxer ever.

Verb + -ing form: (Admit, apologize for, decide on, deny, mention, recommend, regret, report,
suggest)

Eg: ‘I didn’t do it’ He denied doing it

Verb + object+ preposition + -ing form: (Accuse sb of, blame sb for, congratulate sb on, thank
sb for)

Eg: ‘You forged the cheques, didn’t you?  They accused me of forging the cheques.

CONDITIONALS

General points on conditionals

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  Basic structure:
If clause + main clause OR main clause + if clause

ZERO CONDITIONAL

 If + present simple + present simple

Eg: If your hearts stop beating, you die

 To talk about events or situations that can occur at any time, and often occur more than
once.
Eg: If I eat dairy products, I get red spots in my skin
 If can be replaced by when in this type of conditional sentence.
 To talk about action which always have the same result
Eg: If you use a very hot iron on nylon, it melts

FIRST CONDITIONAL

 If + present simple + will/won’t + infinitive

Eg: If you don’t study, you won’t be able to pass the exam

 To describe possible future events or situation and their results

 To express a variety of functions:
 Commands: If you get home late, don’t wake us up!
 Offers: I’ll call the hotel if you don’t have time
 Suggestions: Shall we go tomorrow if the weather’s good?
 Warnings: I’ll call the police if you don’t leave right now!

SECOND CONDITIONAL

 If + past simple + would/wouldn’t + infinitive

Eg: if I were rich, I would travel around the world

 It has two meanings:

 It can describe an improbable future event or situation:
Eg: if the result of the test were positive, we would call within two days
 It can also describe a hypothetical current situation or event:
 To express a variety of functions:
 Giving advice (with were): If I were you, I would take her out of that school
 Polite requests: If you could deal with this matter, I’d be very grateful
 Desires/regrets: If we didn’t have to work so hard, we could spend more time together
 Should +infinitive or were to + infinitive to emphasize that the condition is unlikely to
happen:
Eg: If you were to listen more carefully, you might understand a little more

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THIRD CONDITIONAL

 If + past perfect + would/wouldn’t have + past participle

Eg: If she had gone to the doctor, she wouldn’t have died

 Describes a hypothetical situation or event in the past i.e. it’s an unreal or impossible
situation.
 To express criticism:
Eg: If you’d been driving more slowly, you could have stopped in time

MIXED CONDITIONALS

 Mixed second / third conditional: Describes a hypothetical situation or event in the

present, which is contrary to known facts. The result in the main clause refers to the past:

Eg: If the island were still a tourist attraction, last week’s earthquake would have caused far
more deaths. (The island is no longer a tourist attraction so the earthquake didn’t cause a
huge number of deaths)

 Mixed third/second conditional: Describes a hypothetical situation or event in the past,

which is contrary to know facts. The result in the main clause refers to the present:
Eg: If Fleming hadn’t discovered penicillin, there would be far more fatalities every day
than there actually are. (Fleming did discover penicillin so there are fewer fatalities now)

ALTERNATIVES TO IF

 Unless to express a negative condition. It is similar to if…not or only if

 To express a necessary condition for something to have happened in the past, we use but
for + noun phrase:
Eg: I would go but for your fault I couldn’t
 Suppose/supposing (that)… and What if… to talk about imaginary conditions
Eg: Suppose he asked you to go to the cinema with him, would you go?
 Whether…or not to express alternative conditions
Eg: They’ll deliver the furniture whether there’s someone to receive it or not

REMOTENESS (CONDITIONALS)

 To suggest extreme improbability

o Common expressions: were to – should “ask” – happen to “ask” – should happen to “ask”
– ever “asked” you.

Eg: If I had married someone else, I wouldn’t have these problems  (mixed)

If I Were to have married …

If I had happened to marry

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 If were I to have married someone else …

“UNREAL” USES OF PAST FORMS

THE ‘UNREAL’ PAST

 If only to describe things in the present, past or future which are imagined or unreal. We
refer to this use of past tenses as the ‘unreal’ past.
Eg: if only I was thin (I am not thin but I would like to be thin)
 We use the past perfect to refer to something unreal in the past:
Eg: I wish I’d never started this course (I have started it)

IT’S TIME TO + INFINITIVE OR IT’S TIME FOR + OBJECT + TO + INFINITIVE:

 It’s time to say that something is not happening and it should be:
Eg: It’s time we left (We aren’t leaving and we should)
It’s about time you paid a visit to your grandparents (You should visit them)
It’s high time that the voice of the people was heard in this House (Their voice isn’t
being heard and it should be)

 WE CANNOT USE A NEGATIVE AFTER IT’S HIGH TIME …

 With the past simple or continuous we use what if/suppose/supposing (that) to ask
questions about an imaginary situation in the present or future and its possible
consequences.
Eg: Suppose he asked you to marry him, what would you say?
 Sentences describing an imaginary situation in the past have a similar meaning to third
conditional sentences. EG: Supposing your parents had refused, how would you have felt?
 It is used also to make suggestions
 We use the past simple after as if/ as though to say that something appears now doesn’t
match with reality
 Eg: He talks to the children as though they were imbeciles (The speaker knows they aren’t
imbeciles)
 The present after this to describe how things seem or appear when there is possibility
that the appearance reflects something real
 Would rather = I`d prefer
When the subject of “would rather” is also the subject of the following verb.

I´d rather Present bare infinitive (present/future reference) I´d rather stay in tonight
Perfect bare infinitive (paste reference) I`d rather not have taken the bus, but
I had no choice

When the subject of “would rather” is different from the subject of the following verb.

I´d rather Past simple (present/future reference): I´d rather you didn´t shout so much

Past Perfect (paste reference): I´d rather you had come with me yesterday

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  Prefer + gerund/noun + to + gerund/ noun (general): I prefer watching TV to reading
books.
 Prefer + full infinitive + rather than + bare infinitive (general preference): I prefer to eat
what I want rather than count calories
 Would prefer + full infinitive + rather than + bare infinitive (specific preference): I`d prefer
to play football rather than watch it.
 Would rather + bare infinitive + than + bare infinitive: I`d rather ski than skate
 Had better = should
I had better + present bare inf. (present/future reference): He had better not wait any
longer.

 With the past simple to describe preferences we use would rather/sooner

Eg: I’d sooner you gave me a cash refund. A credit note’s no use to me

WISH/IF ONLY

 Wish/if only + past simple to express a desire for something to be difficult in the present
Eg: I wish I had more free time
 Wish/if only + past perfect to express regret about the past, a wish that something
different had happened
Eg: I wish that you’d told me about this before I booked the tickets
 Wish/if only + would expresses a desire for someone to change their deliberate behavior
in the present or future
Eg: I wish you’d stop looking at me like that. It’s terribly distracting
 Wish/if only + could have describe a desire we know is impossible to achieve
Eg: If only we could see the situation through his eyes (we can’t)
Could have for regret about the past. EG: I wish your father could have been there to see it
all

DEPENDENT PREPOSITIONS

GENERAL RULES

 Preposition after verbs, nouns and adjectives always have an object

Eg: I apologized to my boss/her/the managing director
 If the object of a preposition is a verb, it must be an –ing form:
Eg: She succeeded in winning the race
 Adjectives describing feelings and emotions can be followed by a preposition or to +
infinitive
 Verbs can be followed by a preposition or to + infinitive, but there may be a change of
meaning
Eg: They don’t agree with the government’s policy
 Words which describe what we say, think or feel are followed by a preposition + -ing form.
Some can also by a that clause

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 Eg: The judge insisted on/that the jury disregarding the doctor’s testimony

 WE USE WHETHER AFTER PREPOSITIONS, NOT IF

VERB + PREPOSITION PATTERNS

 Some verbs combine with a preposition to create a new meaning or link a verb with an
object. These verbs are called prepositional verbs
 Some prepositional verbs use an extra preposition before an indirect object
She apologized to the committee for her outburst
 Object + preposition + -ing: After particular verbs to link the verb with the person it affects
and the action which is connected to it
Eg: The police accused her of stealing
 Direct object + preposition+ indirect object: After particular verbs to link the verb with two
objects
Eg: Hendry explained it to me very slowly

NOUN + PREPOSITION

 A noun is related to a prepositional verb, the noun often takes the same preposition
Eg: He succeeded in winning the Palme
 Nouns followed by a preposition are related to verbs which do not take a preposition
 The preposition is followed by an –ing form or noun. But there are some noun +
preposition forms which can only be followed by a noun
Eg: The court issued a demand for repayment of the debt

ADJECTIVE/PARTICIPLE + PREPOSITION

 Adjectives is related to a noun or verb which takes a preposition, the adjective usually
takes the same preposition
Eg: We depend on his generosity
 Adjectives describing feelings and opinions have dependent prepositions
Eg: My grandfather’s very keen on trout fishing

MODAL VERBS

ABILITY

 Present: Can – Is/are able to

 Past: Could – was/were able to

POSIBILITY

 Present: May – Might – Could.

Eg: There may be life on Mars
 Past: Could have – Might have.
Eg: She might have done it; She had the opportunity and the motive.
 Future: Will be able to

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 Eg: We’ll be able to travel to the moon but we won’t be able to travel to Mars

ARRANGEMENTS

 Future: Can, Could, Be able to

PERMISSION

 Present/ future: Can, Can’t

Can I use your phone? No I’m afraid you can’t
 Past: Allowed to
I was allowed to leave early yesterday

OBLIGATION

 Present: Have to, Must, Need (to), Should

Students have to wear a uniform here
Do we need to get a visa for the USA?
 Past: Had to
We had to report the reception by four
 Future: Will have to, Will need to

LACK OF OBLIGATION:

 Present: DON`T HAVE TO/ DOESN´T HAVE TO

 I don`t have to wear a uniform while I am teaching at home

NECCESSITY

 Present: Must, have to, need to:

 Past: Had to, needed to:
 Future: Will have to, will need to

PROHIBITION

 Present/future: Must not, cannot, may not, should not, could not
You mustn’t touch that kettle
 Past: Could not
We couldn’t go because we were too young

PAST CRITICISM

 Should (not) have

You shouldn’t have driven through that red light

ABSENCE OF OBLIGATION OR NECCESSITY

 Didn’t need to  It wasn’t necessary so you didn’t do it

 Needn’t have done  It wasn’t necessary but you did it anyway

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ADVICE/RECOMMENDATION

 Present/ future: Must, should, had better

DEDUCTION

 Present/future: Must, have to, cannot

 Past: Must have, cannot have
She can’t have done it- she wasn’t even here

PROBABILITY

 Present/future: Should
The plane should be landing now
 Past: Should have

CERTAINTY

 Present: Will
It won’t be warm at this time of year
 Past: Will have
They’ll have received the invitation by now

ROUTINES

 Present: Will
 Past: Would

HABITS

 Present: Will
 Past: Would
Dad would always tell me how to run my life.

CHARACTERISTICS

 Present: Will
The stadium will hold about 110.000 people
 Past: Would
The car wouldn’t start on cold mornings

WILLINGNESS/REFUSAL

 Present: Will, won’t

The doctor will act as a witness
 Past: Would, wouldn’t
The shop wouldn’t change this jumper

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HYPOTHECIAL DESIRES

 Present/future: Will, shall

I’ll wash up this evening
 Past: Would have
It would have been a good idea to notify us in advance

 Need + ing: Active in form but passive in meaning (It doesn’t look passive) It is used
with things that have to be done.

INVERSION

 It is used to emphasize
 You have to change the word order
 Negative or restrictive (only)
- We place the negative adverb first

EG: Not only did Sheila come to the party, but she also cooked for us all

No sonner had I walked into the classroom than my teacher asked me a question point blank

Hardly/bearly/scarcely had I walked into the classroom when …

o Not until, Only after, Only if: With these inversion the second clause takes place
Eg: Not until I had finished my homework, did she let me go
o Emphatic IT:
- Cleft means divided
- It + a form of Be + emphasize word/phrase + that/which/who clause
 When  time
 Where  place
 That rest
o Fronting:
- It is used to move objects and complements to the front of the clause
Eg: She may be friendly but she isn’t reliable
Friendly she may be, but she isn’t reliable

LINKING WORDS AND PHRASES: WHEN, IF, IN CASE, EVEN IF AND EVEN THOUGH

We use “when” to talk about.

• a situation: I feel very uncomfortable when the weather is so hot.

• something we know will happen at some point in time: I'm writing an essay at the moment.
When I finish, I'll phone you back.

We use if:

• when we are not sure something will happen.

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We'll miss the beginning of the film if the bus is late.

• Compare:

If I go to college, my parents will buy me a new scooter. (I'm not sure if I'll get a place at college.)

When I get a place at university, my parents will buy me a new car. (I'm confident I'll get a place at
university.)

We use “in case” with the:

• Present tense to talk about something which might happen in the future: I'll take a book
to read in case I have to wait a long time for the train.

Take a bottle of water with you in case you get thirsty.

• Past simple to explain why someone did something: Clara turned off her mobile phone in
case it rang during the exam. (She thought it might ring during the exam, so she turned it off.)

IN CASE AND IF ARE DIFFERENT.

COMPARE:

• I'll take my swimming costume in case we go to the beach. (I'll take it now because we
might go to the beach later.)

• Take my swimming costume if we go to the beach. (I won't take my swimming costume

now, because I don't know if we'll go to the beach - we might not go.)

We use “even though” as a stronger way of saying although when we are certain about
something:

• He bought a new computer, even though his old one was working perfectly. (The speaker is
certain the old one was working perfectly.)

• I'm really looking forward to my holiday, even though the weather forecast is for rain. (The
speaker knows the weather forecast is for rain.)

We use even if as a stronger way of saying if when we are not certain about something:

• I'm going on holiday in the USA this summer even if I fail all my exams. (I'm not sure if I'm
going to fail my exams -but I'm going to have the holiday anyway.)

• I'll come to your party even if l have to walk there. (I don't know if I'll have to walk there,
but I'll make sure I come to your party.)

LINKING WORDS FOR CONTRAST

We use these linking words to show contrast:

ALTHOUGH - EVEN THOUGH - WHILE - WHEREAS - BUT - HOWEVER - DESPITE - IN SPITE OF -

ON THE ONE HAND, ... (ON THE OTHER HAND,)

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ALTHOUGH, EVEN THOUGH, WHILE AND WHEREAS

We use ALTHOUGH, EVEN THOUGH, WHILE AND WHEREAS to put two contrasting ideas in one
sentence:

I didn't buy the dress although I thought it was beautiful.

• They can be placed at the beginning of the sentence or in the middle, between the two
contrasting ideas: It was late. She decided to phone him.

Although it was late, she decided to phone him. OR She decided to phone him although it was late.

• When the sentence begins with although, even though, while or whereas; we separate
the two parts with a comma. When these words are placed in the middle, the comma is optional:

Berlin is a noisy city. My home village is quite peaceful.

While Berlin is a noisy city, my home village is quite peaceful. OR Berlin is a noisy city whereas my
home village is quite peaceful.

• EVEN THOUGH is stronger than ALTHOUGH:

I didn't buy the book, even though I had the money in my pocket.

BUT

• “BUT” can be used to join two sentences. In this case, it is used in the middle of the
sentence and it often follows a comma:

We warned her, but she didn't pay any attention.

• “BUT” can sometimes be used at the beginning of a new sentence:

He likes romantic films. But don't tell anybody!

HOWEVER

• “HOWEVER” normally starts a new sentence and refers to the sentence before.

• It is usually followed by a comma:

He decided to go out to the cinema. However, he didn't tell his family where he was going.

DESPITE AND IN SPITE OF

• “DESPITE” and “IN SPITE OF” mean 'without taking any notice or being influenced by';
'not prevented by':

He got into the basketball team despite being quite short.

She went swimming in spite of the cold weather.

• They can be placed at the beginning of the sentences the middle. They are followed by a
noun or a verb + -ing

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• When used at the beginning of a sentence, a comma i also used to separate the two parts
of the sentence: Despite working all day, Teresa didn't feel at all tired. We got to school on time in
spite of the heavy traffic.

ON THE ONE HAND, ... (ON THE OTHER HAND)

• “ON THE ONE HAND ... (ON THE OTHER HAND)” normally star sentences and can be used
to balance two contrasting ideas or points of view: I'm not sure whether to go to the seaside for
my holidays this year. On the one hand, most of my friends are going. On the other hand, it's time
to have a change and go somewhere different.

• “ON THE OTHER HAND” can be used to introduce a contrast idea even if you haven't used
on the one hand: Doing sport can be a great way to relax. On the other hand, it can cause quite
serious injuries.

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