Introduction
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
The term telecommunication means communication at a
distance. The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and
using the data.
Data communications are the exchange of data between
two devices via some form of transmission medium such as
a wire cable or wireless.
1. Delivery → Correct destination
2. Accuracy → Accurate data
3. Timelines → Real-time transmission
4. Jitter → Uneven delay
1.2
Topics discussed in this section:
Components
Data Representation
Data Flow
Components
Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication
5
1
2 3
4
1.3
Data Representation
1. Text
2. Numbers
3. Images
4. Audio
5. Video
Data flow
▪ Simplex
▪ Half-duplex
▪ Full-duplex
1.4
NETWORKS and Internet
A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by
communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or
any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network.
The Internet has changed many aspects of our daily lives. It
has affected the way we do business as well as the way we
spend our leisure time. The Internet is a communication
system that has brought a wealth of information to our
fingertips and organized it for our use.
1.5
PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS
protocols and standards.
Protocol is synonymous with rule.
Standards are agreed-upon rules.
Protocols
• Syntax → format of the data
• Semantics → meaning of each section
• Timing → when data should be sent and how fast.
Standards
• De facto → by fact (not approved as a standard)
• De jure → by Law (approved)
1.6
Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
◼ Function
◼ Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
◼ Representation of bits
◼ Data rate
◼ Synchronization of bits
◼ Line configuration (point-to-point or multipoint)
◼ Physical topology (mesh, star, ring or bus)
◼ Transmission mode ( simplex, half-duplex or duplex)
1.8
Physical layer
1.9
Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.
◼ Function
◼ Framing
◼ Physical addressing
◼ Flow control
◼ Error control
◼ Access control
1.10
Data link layer
1.11
Hop-to-hop delivery
1.12
Example 1
In following Figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node
with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link. At the data
link level this frame contains physical addresses in the header. These are the
only addresses needed. The rest of the header contains other information
needed at this level. The trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error
detection
1.13
Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
◼ Source-to-destination delivery
◼ Responsible from the delivery of packets from the original
source to the final destination
◼ Functions
◼ Logical addressing
◼ routing
1.14
Network layer
1.15
Source-to-destination delivery
1.16
Example 2
We want to send data from a node
with network address A and
physical address 10, located on
one LAN, to a node with a
network address P and physical
address 95, located on another
LAN. Because the two devices are
located on different networks, we
cannot use physical addresses
only; the physical addresses only
have local influence. What we
need here are universal addresses
that can pass through the LAN
boundaries. The network (logical)
addresses have this characteristic.
1.17
Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.
◼ Process-to- process delivery
◼ Functions
◼ Port addressing
◼ Segmentation and reassembly
◼ Connection control ( Connection-oriented or connection-less)
◼ Flow control
◼ Error control
1.18
Transport layer
Segmentation and reassembly
1.19
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
1.20
Example 3
Data coming from the
upper layers have port
addresses j and k (j is the
address of the sending
process, and k is the
address of the receiving
process). Since the data size
is larger than the network
layer can handle, the data
are split into two packets,
each packet retaining the
port addresses (j and k).
Then in the network layer,
network addresses (A and
P) are added to each
packet.
1.21
Application Layer
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
◼ Functions
◼ Network virtual terminal (Remote log-in)
◼ File transfer and access
◼ Mail services
◼ Directory services (Distributed Database)
◼ Accessing the World Wide Web
1.22
Application layer
1.23
ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet
employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical,
port, and specific.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
1.24
Addresses in TCP/IP
1.25
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
1.26
Physical Address
Physical addresses are imprinted on the
NIC. Most local-area networks (Ethernet)
use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written
as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon.
Example:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical
address.
1.27
Physical Address
• known also as the MAC address
• Is the address of a node as defined by its
LAN or WAN
• It is included in the frame used by data link
layer
The physical addresses in the datagram may change
from hop to hop.
1.28
Logical Address
▪ IP addresses are necessary for universal
communications that are independent of physical
network.
▪ No two host address on the internet can have the
same IP address
▪ IP addresses in the Internet are 32-bit address that
uniquely define a host.
The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,
but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
1.29
Port addresses
Port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal
number ranged from (0-65535) to choose a process among
multiple processes on the destination host.
▪ Destination port number is needed for delivery.
▪ Source port number is needed for receiving a reply as an
acknowledgments.
In TCP/IP , a 16-bit port address represented
as one single number. Example: 753
The physical addresses change from hop to hop,
but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.
1.30
Port addresses
1.31
Specific addresses
E-mail address (user1@[Link])
Universal Resource Locator (URL) ([Link])
The Domain Name System (DNS) translates human-friendly
computer hostnames ( URL) into IP addresses. For example,
[Link] is translated to [Link]
1.32
Network security
• field of network security:
• how bad guys can attack computer networks
• how we can defend networks against attacks
• how to design architectures that are immune to attacks
• Internet not originally designed with (much)
security in mind
• original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users
attached to a transparent network” ☺
• Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
• security considerations in all layers!
Introduction 1-33
Bad guys: put malware into hosts via Internet
• malware can get in host from:
• virus: self-replicating infection by receiving/executing
object (e.g., e-mail attachment)
• worm: self-replicating infection by passively receiving
object that gets itself executed
• spyware malware can record keystrokes, web
sites visited, upload info to collection site
• infected host can be enrolled in botnet, used for
spam. DDoS attacks
Introduction 1-34
Bad guys: attack server, network infrastructure
Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources
(server, bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate traffic
by overwhelming resource with bogus traffic
1. select target
2. break into hosts around
the network (see botnet)
3. send packets to target from
compromised hosts
target
Introduction 1-35
Bad guys can sniff packets
packet “sniffing”:
▪ broadcast media (shared Ethernet, wireless)
▪ promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets (e.g.,
including passwords!) passing by
A C
src:B dest:A payload
B
▪ wireshark software used for end-of-chapter labs is a (free) packet-sniffer
Introduction 1-36
Bad guys can use fake addresses
IP spoofing: send packet with false source address
A C
src:B dest:A payload
Introduction 1-37
application
(www browser,
packet
email client)
analyzer
application
OS
packet Transport (TCP/UDP)
Network (IP)
capture copy of all
Ethernet Link (Ethernet)
(pcap) frames
sent/receive Physical
d