UNIT TWO

PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

Introduction
The Region Ethiopia and the Horn is referred to as the cradle of humankind. It is also a region where early
civilizations including food production, making tools and religion took place. These developments
contributed to the social evolutions, economic formations, and socio-cultural and political settings.
This unit traces human evolution and Neolithic Revolution and then describes languages and peoples
settlement along with cultural settings of the region. The purpose is to show that the region is home to
diverse peoples, and cultures (languages, religion, customs…) and economic activities.
2.1. Human Evolution
 Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of the globe that had been formed through
gradual natural process since about (circa/c.) 4. 5 billion years before present (B. P.)
 The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion years B. P.
 Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is a cradle of humanity. Evidences
related to both biological and cultural evolution have been discovered in the Lower Omo and
Middle Awash River valleys both by Ethiopian and foreign scholars.
o Chorora pithecus dated 10 million B. P. was unearthed in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in
2007.
o Ardipithicus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP) was discovered in Middle
Awash.
o Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994.
o Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie (dated back 3.6 million years B. P.) in
Middle Awash.
o A three years old child’s fossil termed as Australopithecus afarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3
million years B.P was also discovered at Dikika, Mille, and Afar in 2000.
o Another Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years B. P.) with
40% complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters and pelvis looks like bipedal
female was discovered at Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D.
o Australopithecus anamensis was discovered around Lake Turkana. An eco-fact named as
Australopithecus garhi dated to 2.5 million years B.P was discovered at Bouri, Middle
Awash, between 1996 and 1999.
 The development of the human brain was to be the main feature of the next stage of human
evolution
a) The genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P.
 Homo Habilis Latin terms "Homo" (human being) and "Habilis" (skillful use of
hands), dated 1.9 million years B. P. has been found in the Lower Omo.
 Homo erectus (walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years B. P.) was discovered at Melka
Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb.
 Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and then spread out to
the rest of the world.
 Archaic Homosapiens (knowledgeable human being, dated 400, 000 years B.P.) named
Bodo was discovered in Middle Awash.
 Homo sapiens sapiens were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and Kibish
around Lower Omo (in 1967). In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B. P, the
oldest date in the world for modern Homo sapiens.

1
  Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000 years B.P.

Cultural evolution
 Is related to technological changes that brought socio-economic transformation on human life.
 It can be conventionally grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
 Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human beings.
By taking their features, ways and period of production, stone tools can be grouped in to
1) Mode I (Olduwan, which was named based on the first report made at Olduvai Gorge,
Tanzania).
 It mainly characterized by crude and mono-facial styles, and were produced by the
direct percussion(beating)
 Artifact findings suggest that Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis were
discovered near Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P. in 1992) and at Shungura in Afar.
2) Mode II (Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul, France)
 Were produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or hammer, and mainly
characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features.
 Homo erectus produced Acheulean tools dated back to [Link] years B.P,
 Invented fire and started burial practice.
 Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at Kella, Middle Awash in 1963.
3) Mode III (Sangoon) Mode III stone tools are characterized by flexible and finest form of
production by the use of obsidian.
 Homosapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,000 years B. P.
 Gademotta site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to 200, 000 B. P.
Other vital sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia and Midhidhishi
and Gudgud in Somalia
 Examples of the above types of stone tools have been found in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Fossilized animal bones (3. 4 million years B. P.) were found with stone-tool-inflicted marks on
them (the oldest evidence of stone tool in the world) at Dikika in 2010.
The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-periods.
a) The Paleolithic (Old Stone Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.)
 was the period when human being developed language with shelter in cave using stone, bone,
wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and clothing.
 There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters of fauna, and children and
females as gatherers of flora.
b) Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.)
 was transition between Paleolithic and Neolithic (New Stone Age /10, 000-6, 000 B.P).
c) Neolithic Revolution
 human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life.
 This was a radical shift involving changes from hunting and gathering to the domestication of
plants and animals.
 Climatic change and increased hunter-gatherers’ population resulted in the declining number
of animals and availability of plants.

2
  As food gatherers were already aware of growing cycle of most of grass types, they began to
thickly grow those, which were most common and yielded seeds that are more edible.
 The big animals, which depended on dense bushes for sustenance, were reduced by hunting and
animals that people were able to domesticate easily were smaller ones.
 The process of domestication took place independently in the various parts of the world. In
Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-parts,
o People cultivated plants including Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug
(Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.
o The domestication of enset plant (Enseteedule) reduced shifting cultivation (continuous
clearing of new plots), slowing down soil exhaustion.
o The discovery of polished (sofacticated) axes, ceramics, grinding stones, beads, stone figures
and animal remains in sites like Emba-Fakeda around Adigrat in Tigray as well as Aqordat
and Barentu in Eritrea evinces the existence of Neolithic material culture.
o The Gobodara rock shelter near Aksum has provided us agricultural stone tools.
 Remains associated with domesticated cattle, chickpeas and vegetables have been excavated
from Lalibela Cave on the southeastern shore of Lake Tana.
o Stone tools used for cutting grass and grass like plants as well as rock paintings of
domesticated animals have been found at Laga Oda rock shelter near Charchar.
o Evidence for domesticated cattle also comes from around Lake Basaqa near Matahara.
The Peopling of the Region
Languages and Linguistic Processes
 Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic diversity. There are about
90 languages with 200 dialects (accents) in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major language super families.
These are Afro-Asiatic and Nilo-Saharan.
1) Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families:
a) Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches:
 Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan.
 Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen.
 Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji,
Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo,
Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.
 Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.
b) Semitic: is divided into two:
 North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border); Tigre (spoken in
Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland Eritrea and Tigray).
 South: is further divided into two
a) Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.
b) Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered).
c) Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Banna, Basketo, Bench, Boro-Shinasha, Chara, Dawuro, Dime,
Dizi, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa, Hamer, Hozo, KachamaGanjule, Karo, Keficho,
Konta, Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayta, Yem, Zayse etc.
Among its groups, Ometo includes Wolayta and Gamo while main Gonga is Keficho.
2) Nilo-Saharan: Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama, Kwegu,
Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nara, Nu’er, Nyangatom, Opo, Shabo, Suri and Uduk.

3
Language classification did not remain static. Factors like population movements, warfare, trade,
religious and territorial expansion, urbanization etc. have resulted in intense linguistic processes that
forced languages to be affected. In this process, some languages died out or have been in danger of
extinction while others thrived off the social phenomenon that is evidently observed.
Settlement Patterns
 A settlement pattern, the distribution of peoples across the landscape, is the results of long
historical processes in northeast Africa.
 In some areas, settlement was dense and in other areas sparse. Some people inhabited extensive
highlands and others the lowlands.
 Based on historical linguistic and history of inter-peoples relations, studies indicate that
environmental, socio-economic, and political processes significantly shaped and reshaped the
spatial distribution of peoples in the region.
 Since early times, the Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between the Red Sea
in the east and Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to different directions.
 In due course, the Cushites have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and the
Horn and have also spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.
 Similarly, the Semitic peoples spread over large area and eventually settled the northern, north
central, northeastern, south central and eastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. The Semites
are the second majority people next to the Cushites.
 Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the South Mao in Wallagga, the
majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River basin.
Yet, in the earlier times, they had extended much further to the north.
 In the west, the Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border although some of
the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern Omo. The latter are identified as the
Karamojo cluster living around Turkana Lake along Ethio-Kenyan border.
Economic Formations
 The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two interdependent modes of life:
agriculture and pastoralism.
 While there may be pure pastoralists, it is very rare to think of a farmer without a head of cattle or
two. Likewise, in Ethiopia and the Horn, these two forms of livelihood have coexisted and quite
often interrelated. Yet, topographic features and climatic conditions largely influenced economic
activities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the eastern lowland region since early
periods. Pastoral economy namely the production of camel, goat, and cattle has been the most
common economic practice among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana
Oromo. While the Afar and Karrayu have depended on the Awash River, the Somali have owed a
great deal to Wabi Shebelle and Genale (Jubba) Rivers.
 The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands of years supporting sizable
populations. Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming.
 It is here that sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least since 10, 000 years B.
P. by the Cushites, Semites and Omotic groups.
 The major economic activity of the Omotic has been mixed farming and trade in northern Omo
while southern Omo have predominantly practiced pastoralism and fishing. Many of the Omotic
groups have also been famous in metallurgy, weaving and other crafts.

4
  In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the dominant economic formations were
pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture and hunting. For instance, sorghum, millet,
cotton and others have been largely cultivated in the lowlands along Ethio-Sudanese border since
antiquity.
 The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers have been shifting cultivators where
sorghum has been a staple food.
 Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high economic and social values. Berta and other
Nilotes had trade and other social contacts with northern Sudan.
Religion and Religious Processes
Indigenous Religion
 This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, followed by the local people since
ancient times.
 Indigenous religion is belief in one Supreme Being, but special powers are attributed to natural
phenomena, which are considered sacred.
 Spiritual functionaries officiate over rituals, propitiate divinities, and are held in a lot of respect
as intermediaries between the society and spirits.
 Some major indigenous religious groups that still claim the allegiance of the region's population
are discussed.
a) Waqeffanna of the Oromo
 Is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called Waqa.
 Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana.
 The major spirits include:-
Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit), Atete (women or human and animal fertility spirit),
Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit), Balas (victory spirit), Chato/Dora (wild animals defender)
Gijare/ Nabi (father and mother’s sprit), Jaricha (peace spirit), Qasa (anti-disease spirit)
etc. dead exist in the form of a ghost called Ekera. there is thanks giving festival called
Irrecha besides New Year (Birbo) rite. Qallu (male) and Qallitti (female) have maintained
link between the Ayyana and the believers. Qallu ritual house is called Galma located on hill
top or in the grove of large trees. On Wednesday and Friday nights, there is Dalaga/ecstasy
at which Qallu or Qallitti is possessed by Ayyana so that s/he can interpret mysteries. The
Jila/Makkala (delegated messengers) used to make pilgrimage to get consecration of senior
Qallu (AbbaMuda or anointment father) until about 1900.
b) Among the Hadiya the Supreme Being is known as
 Waa, is believed to exist before everything (hundam issancho) or create world
(qoccancho) and whose eyes are represented by elincho (sun) and agana (moon).
 Spirits like:-
Jara (male’s protector), Idota (female’s guard), Hausula, Qedane and Warriqa attracted prayers
and sacrifices at Shonkolla and Kallalamo mountains chosen by Anjanchoand Jaramanjcho.
 One of Hadiya's clans, Worqimene, is believed to have the power to send rain in drought.
 Fandanano (sing. Fandancho) practice is believed to be introduced by either spiritual
leaders, Itto and Albajafrom Bimado clan, or Boyamo, father of five Hadiya clans, and was
largely followed by inhabitants of Boshana, Misha etc.
c) The Kambata
 have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God/ and religious officials known as Magnancho.
d) The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had thanks giving ceremony called Deraro.

5
e) The Konso religion centered on worship of Waaq/Wakh.
f) The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God).
g) Among sections of the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (supreme god),
 Bozha (thunder God) and Damwamwit (health Goddess).
 The Gurage and the
h) Yem had a common deity known as Abba at Enar (Henar).
 The Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God). So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious
duties as it was in charge of Shashokam (the most vital deity). Religious functions were
performed through couriers in each village called Magos.
i) The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho.
j) The Wolayta called God Tosa and spirit Ayyana including Tawa-Awa /Moytiliya (father’s
spirit), Sawuna (justice spirit), Wombo (rain spirit), Micho (goat spirit), Nago (sheep spirit),
Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit), Gomashera (war spirit), Talahiya (Beta Talaye or talheya, Omo
spirit) etc. Dufuwa (grave) was believed to be abode of Moytiliya. Annual worship of spirits was
performed at a sacred place called Mitta usually at the end of May and beginning of June to
offer sacrifice of the first fruits called Teramo or Pageta (Dubusha). People gathered around
tree called Dongowa, which varied from clan to clan: sycamore (Ficussur exasperate) for the
Bubula, podocarpo for Zatuwa etc. The Qesiga called their meeting place Kasha (Dabre). To
protect people from eating crop before harvesting Zomboro clan used Diqaysa practice by
planting in their fields sour olive and nubica trees. The Wolayta also had the practice of
Chaganna (prohibited days to work) to protect produce from disaster. They also chose and kept
dark brown heifer called Beka (Beqabe) or Baqa Potilliya (Literally, ritual cattle) as birthday
fate. If they made error in respecting this custom, they would anoint their bodies with a leaf
called Aydameta (ground red pepper) as repentance. Religious practitioners known as
Sharechuwa had Becha or Kera Eza Keta (ritual house).

k) The Keficho called Supreme Being as Yero; spirit as Eqo and a person who hosts Eqo is known
as Alamo or eke-nayo. Father of all spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno and its host is called dochi-
nayo or Ibedechino/Ibede-gudeno (including Arito and Wudia Riti), with residence at Adio.
Harvest spirit is called Kollo and sacrifice to it is dejo. Earth and area spirits are known as
Showe-kollo and Dude-baro respectively. There are also local spirits like damochechi of
Channa, yaferochi of Sharada and wogidochi of Adio as well as gepetato or king of hill
identified by Yetecho clan as landowner. Members of the Dugo clan led spiritual services.
l) The Boro-Shinasha people believe in super natural power called Iqa, which created everything
and presides over the universe.
 The indigenous religion elements prescribe praying for the prevention of drought, flooding,
erosion, disease and starvation within the community and their surrounding environment.
 Among various prayer rituals,
o the first is Gure Shuka for preservation of their locality through slaughtering animals
by calling the name of God being at the tip of the mountains.
o The second is Shode De’na, praying and slaughtering when unexpected disease
happens.
o The third is Marrowa Shuka; slaughtering for children to grow without disease and
to prevent children from evil spirits attack; for rehabilitation of wealth; to promote
harmonious way of life and productivities in the family. The rituals are led by

6
 recognized elders, whose pray and bless are trusted to reach God among the three
clans: Enoro, Endiwo and Dowa.
m) The Nuer
 Believe in Kuoth Nhial (God in Heaven), but believe in the coming of God through rain,
lightning and thunder, and rainbow is necklace of God. Sun and moon as well as other
entities are also manifestation or sign of God. There are also spirits associated with clan
spears names such as WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder. The Nuer believe that
when a person dies, flesh is committed to earth while breath or life goes back to Kuoth and
soul that signifies human personality remains alive as a shadow or a reflection, and departs
together with ox sacrificed to place of ghosts.
An interesting feature of indigenous religion is the way its practices and beliefs are fused with
Christianity and Islam. This phenomenon of mixing of religions is known as syncretism.
Judaism
 Judaism is considered as the expression of the covenant that Yahweh/Jehovah (God) established
with the ancient Jewish (Hebrew).
 Sources indicate that Judaism has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by peoples since early
times.
 It began to be clearly noticed in the 4th century AD, when the Bete-Israel (literally, house of
Israel), one of the ancient peoples in the region, refused to be converted to Christianity.
 The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices, which are generally recognized as
Israelite religion that differs from Rabbinic Judaism).
 Orgion of Bete Israel:-
a) Many of the Bete-Israel accounts of their own origins stress that they stem from every
ancient migration of some portion of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, led it is said by sons of
Moses, perhaps even at the time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.). Alternative timelines
include perhaps the later crises in Judea, e.g., split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from
the southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King Solomon or Babylonian Exile.
b) Other Bete-Israel take as their basis the account of return to Ethiopia of Menilek I, who is
believed to be the son of King Solomon (r. 974-932 B.C.) of ancient Israel and Makeda,
ancient Queen of Saba (Sheba), and considered to be the first Solomonic Emperor of
Ethiopia.
c) Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos and Phinhas
in 6th century A.D.
d) Still others are said to have been Jewish immigrants intermarried with the Agaws.
Whatever the case, the Jews appear to have been isolated from mainstream Jewish for at
least a millennium. The Jewish developed and lived for centuries in northern and
northwestern Ethiopia.
Christianity
Christianity became state religion in 334 A.D. during the reign of King Ezana (r. 320-360), who
dropped pre-Christian gods like Ares (Hariman/Maharram/war god), Arwe (serpentpython god),
Bahir (sea god) and Midir (earth god), and embraced Christianity. Instrumental in conversion of the
king were Syrian brothers, Aedesius and Frementius (Fremnatos). When Fremnatos (Kasate Birhane
or Abba Salama) visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373) appointed him as the first Bishop
of Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC). Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt
continued until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian Patriarch.

7
Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in later part of 5 th c, during the reign of
Ella Amida II (478-86) by the Nine Saints shown in the table below:
Table I: The Nine Saints
Name Origin Church/Monastery Location of the Church
1 Abuna Aregawwi Rome Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
(Abba Za Mika’el)
2 Abuna Isaq (Abba Rome Debre Gerima (East of Adwa )
Gerima) Medera

3 Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre Pentelwon Asbo (North East of

Aksum)
4 Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of Aksum)

5 Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Haleluya Biheza (Northeast of

Aksum)
6 Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera
7 Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum
8 Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa
9 Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Yima’ata Ger’alta
Source: Sergew Hable Sellassie, Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to1270 (Addis Ababa: Haile-
Selassie I University Press, 1972), pp.115-9.

 The saints also translated Bible and other religious books into Geez. Then expansion of
Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270) and chiefly gained fresh momentum during
the early Medieval Period (1270-1527), when many churches and monasteries were constructed.
 These include Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea; Debra-
Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in Shewa, Birbir
Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.
 From mid-16th to the early 17th centuries, Jesuits tried to convert Monophysite EOC to
Dyophysite Catholic. Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the Jesuits.
However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies within EOC that is discussed
in subsequent units.
 As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion was one of the dominant themes of treaties
concluded between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities.
a) The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis (Capuchin
order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active.
b) Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of London
(CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries and their major
leaders were Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf. Systematic approach of trained
Protestants enabled them to win confidence of local people. They translated spiritual books
into vernaculars. They adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Tosa etc and
used them in new versions as equivalent to God.
 Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith. These schools
were open to all children of chiefs and farmers. They also provided medical

8
 facilities. All these attracted a large number of followers. Eventually, continuous
and systematic indoctrinations seem to have resulted in grafting of new teaching
on indigenous religion.
Islam
 When Prophet Mohammed started the teaching of Islam in Mecca in 610 AD, he faced
opposition from the Quraysh rulers.
 the Prophet sent some of his early followers including his daughter Rukiya and her husband
Uthman as well as the Prophet's future wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma to Aksum.
 The first group of refuges was led by Jafar Abu Talib. In his advice to his followers, the Prophet
said of Ethiopia, "…a king under whom none are persecuted. It is a land of righteousness,
where God will give relief from what you are suffering."
 The then Aksumite king, Armah Ella Seham (Ashama b. Abjar or Ahmed al-Nejash in Arabic
sources), gave them asylum from 615-28.
 Leaders of the Quraysh asked Armah to repatriate the refugees, but the king did not comply.
Armah is said to have replied, "If you were to offer me a mountain of gold I would not give up
these people who have taken refuge with me.” Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa
not through Jihad, but through peaceful ways including trade.
 Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by the beginning of 8th c.
In the early 10th c, the Muslim community on the islands developed a sultanate. In due course,
Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast. It was from these coastal areas that Islam
gradually spread among the predominantly pastoral communities of the interior, largely
through the agency of preachers and merchants.
 Notwithstanding the debates, the Dahlak route played a minor role in introduction of Islam into
the interior as Christianity was strongly entrenched as a state religion in Aksum and later states
of northern Ethiopia and open proselytization (to induce someone to convert to one’s faith) of
Islam was prohibited.
 Thus, the port of Zeila on western coast of Gulf of Aden served as an important gateway for the
introduction of Islam mainly into the present day Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
 Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the 8 th and 9th c centuries. From there, it
radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia through the role of Muslim clerics who
followed in the footsteps of traders.
 In this regard, it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint of medieval
period, played very important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale, Arsi and other
southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar
shrine.
 Islam was introduced into Somali territories in 8th century A. D. through Benadir coasts of
Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. Abu Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate
c.1269. Islam was further expanded by spiritual orders (turuq, singulartariqa). The mosques,
Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have been the depositories of cultures, traditions and
literature of local Muslims.