6.
1 The Traditional and the New Media
Definition of Media
Media are channels of mass communication, including traditional forms such as newspapers, television,
and radio, and new media such as the internet and social platforms. Dutton et al. (1998) defined
traditional media as impersonal, one-way, and organized, whereas new media are interactive,
networked, and individualized.
Ownership and Control
Ownership is concentrated among a few corporations (Comcast, Disney, Alphabet), leading to concerns
about diversity. McChesney (2000) called this the 'illusion of choice.' Conglomeration and cross-media
ownership, such as Amazon’s diversification into publishing and streaming, have created powerful
global empires.
Digitalisation and Convergence
Digitalisation converts analogue media to digital, enabling streaming, on-demand access, and
convergence of platforms. Traditional media now coexist with digital forms — newspapers publish
online, radio thrives through podcasts, and TV is streamed globally.
Social Media and Globalisation
Social media enable many-to-many communication. Although corporate-owned, platforms like Twitter
and TikTok allow 'prosumers' (producer-consumers) to create and share content. Digitalisation fosters
globalisation and challenges censorship, but audience fragmentation has reduced shared experiences.
6.2 Theories of the Media and Influences on Media Content
Pluralist Theory
Pluralists argue media reflect audience demand. Diversity and competition ensure consumer choice.
Audiences are active, not passive. Critics such as Murdock & Golding (1977) say ownership still leads
to bias and limits real diversity.
Marxist and Neo-Marxist Theories
Traditional Marxists see media as ideological state apparatuses (Althusser, 1971) that reproduce
capitalist ideology. Neo-Marxists like Gramsci emphasize hegemony—control through consent.
Chomsky and Herman’s Propaganda Model (1988) identifies five filters: ownership, advertising,
sourcing, flak, and ideology of fear.
Factors Influencing Content
Economic pressures lead to 'churnalism' (Davies, 2008). Political control includes censorship and
self-regulation. Ideological filters such as news values (Galtung & Ruge, 1973) and framing (Hall, 1980)
shape interpretation. Cohen (1972) described 'moral panics' that stigmatize groups.
Postmodernism
Baudrillard (1983) argued media create hyper-reality—representations that seem more real than reality.
Media saturate everyday life, blurring fact and fiction.
6.3 The Impact of the New Media
Globalisation and Connectivity
New media enhance global connectivity and cultural exchange but raise privacy and surveillance
concerns (Socha & Eber-Schmid, 2012). States and corporations increasingly monitor user data.
Optimists vs Pessimists
Digital optimists like Tapscott & Williams (2008) see empowerment and collaboration. Pessimists such
as Schecter (2000) highlight corporate monopolies, exploitation, and inequality. Negroponte (1995)
noted personalised media feeds ('Daily Me') that fragment audiences.
Identity and Relationships
Online media expand identity exploration but foster echo chambers and weaker social ties. Social
platforms promote activism (e.g., Arab Spring) but also misinformation and surveillance.
6.4 Media Representations of Class, Gender, Ethnicity, and Age
Class
Newman (2006) and Jones (2011) found working-class people depicted as problematic or deviant, while
elites are glorified. Reality TV reinforces class stereotypes.
Gender
Feminists argue media perpetuate patriarchy. Mulvey (1975) proposed the 'male gaze.' Tuchman
(1978) identified symbolic annihilation. Gauntlett (2008) saw improved diversity. Connell (1995)
discussed hegemonic masculinity.
Ethnicity
Van Dijk (1991) and Hall et al. (1978) found minorities portrayed as threats or criminals. Cottle (2000)
outlined five frames: criminal, threat, unassimilated, dependent, and exotic.
Age
Biggs (1993) noted negative portrayals of elderly people; Wayne et al. (2008) found youth linked to
crime in 82% of news reports.
6.5 Models of Media Effects
Hypodermic Syringe Model
Media messages directly influence passive audiences, shaping beliefs and behaviour (e.g.,
propaganda).
Two-Step Flow Model (Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955)
Opinion leaders mediate messages, showing that influence is social rather than direct.
Uses and Gratifications (Blumler & Katz, 1974)
Audiences actively use media for diversion, identity, relationships, and surveillance.
Cultural Effects (Hall, 1980)
Long-term ideological influence through encoding/decoding: dominant, negotiated, and oppositional
readings.
Postmodernism
Baudrillard (1998) argued the media no longer reflect but create reality.
6.6 The Impact of the Media on Behaviour
Violence and Copycat Behaviour
Bandura (1961) found children imitate aggression. Newson (1994) warned of 'video nasties'
desensitising viewers, though Cumberbatch (2001) found little evidence.
Moral Panics (Cohen, 1972)
Media amplify deviance, creating public anxiety and social control.
Cultivation Theory (Gerbner & Gross, 1976)
Heavy TV viewing cultivates fear ('Mean World Syndrome').
Positive Impacts
Media educate and raise awareness (#MeToo, Black Lives Matter) and promote tolerance through
exposure to diversity.