RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Course Name: AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS
Course Code: 21ME71
ME VII Semester
2021 Scheme
Module-4
Spatial descriptions and transformations
❖ Robot actuators and Feedback components
❖ Actuators: Pneumatic, Hydraulic actuators, electric & stepper motors,
comparison.
❖ Position sensors –potentiometers, resolvers, encoders –Velocity
sensors, Tactile sensors, Proximity sensors.
❖ Manipulator Kinematics: Homogeneous transformations as applicable
to rotation and translation -D-H notation, Forward and inverse
kinematics.
Dr. Shanthala K.
Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering
RVITM, Bengaluru – 560076
Email: [Link]@[Link]
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Module-4
Spatial descriptions and transformations
Spatial descriptions and transformations are fundamental concepts in robotics, particularly
when dealing with the movement and positioning of robot manipulators in three-dimensional
space. These concepts allow us to describe the position, orientation, and movement of a robot
or its parts relative to different reference frames.
4.1 Spatial Descriptions
Spatial descriptions are the fundamental way to represent and describe the position and
orientation of objects in space, which is essential in robotics. These descriptions allow robots
to understand and interact with their environment by providing a framework to define where
objects are located and how they are oriented relative to each other.
Position: The position of a point in space can be described using a vector, typically in a
Cartesian coordinate system (x, y, z). The position vector defines the location of the point
relative to a reference frame or origin. For example, a point P in space can be described by a
vector p=[x,y,z]T.
Orientation: The orientation of a rigid body, such as a robot's end-effector, describes how it is
rotated relative to a reference frame. Orientation can be represented using rotation matrices,
Euler angles, or quaternions.
• Rotation Matrix: A 3x3 matrix that defines the rotation of a body around the coordinate
axes.
• Euler Angles: A set of three angles (roll, pitch, yaw) that describe rotations around the
coordinate axes.
• Quaternions: A four-element vector used to represent rotation without the singularities
associated with Euler angles.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Pose: Pose refers to both the position and orientation of an object. It is typically represented
using a 4x4 homogeneous transformation matrix, which combines the rotation matrix and
translation vector.
4.2 Spatial Transformations
Spatial transformations are operations that change the position and/or orientation of objects in
space. They are essential for controlling and programming robots to perform tasks such as
moving an end-effector to a specific location or rotating it to a desired orientation.
Translation: Translation refers to moving an object from one position to another without
changing its orientation. It is represented by a translation vector d=[dx,dy,dz]T, which is added
to the position vector of the object.
p′=p+d
Rotation: Rotation involves turning an object around a specific axis. It is represented by a
rotation matrix RRR, which rotates the position vector of the object around the origin of the
coordinate system.
p′=R⋅p
Homogeneous Transformation: A homogeneous transformation matrix combines rotation
and translation into a single 4x4 matrix, making it possible to perform both operations
simultaneously. This is particularly useful in robotics for moving and orienting robot arms or
end-effectors.
𝑹 𝒅
T=[ ]
𝟎 𝟏
Where:
o R is the 3x3 rotation matrix.
o d is the 3x1 translation vector.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
o The 4x4 matrix allows for matrix multiplication to apply multiple
transformations sequentially.
Frame Transformation: Frame transformation is the process of converting coordinates from
one reference frame to another. This is crucial in robotics when different parts of a robot or its
environment are described in different coordinate frames.
To transform a point from one frame (A) to another frame (B), a transformation matrix TBA is
used:
pB=TBA⋅pA
Where:
o pA is the point in frame A.
o pB is the transformed point in frame B.
o TBA is the homogeneous transformation matrix that defines the transformation
from frame A to frame B.
4.3 Robot actuators and Feedback components
In robotics, actuators and feedback components work together to enable precise control of a
robot’s movements and actions. Actuators are the mechanical devices responsible for
converting energy into motion, allowing the robot to perform tasks such as lifting, rotating, or
grasping. They can be pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric, depending on the power and control
requirements of the application.
Feedback components, such as position, velocity, and tactile sensors, monitor the robot's
performance by providing real-time data on its movements and interactions. This information
is used to adjust and refine the robot's actions, ensuring accuracy, stability, and adaptability in
dynamic environments. Together, actuators and feedback systems form the foundation of a
robot’s motion control, enabling efficient and precise operation.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
4.3.1 Feedback Components
Feedback components are essential in robotics to monitor and adjust the robot's movements,
ensuring accuracy and reliability in task execution. These components provide real-time data
on the robot's position, speed, and other parameters, enabling corrective actions when
deviations occur.
a. Encoders
• Function: Measure the position or speed of a rotating shaft, providing
feedback on angular displacement.
• Types:
▪ Incremental Encoders: Provide relative position data by counting
pulses from a reference point.
▪ Absolute Encoders: Provide a unique position value, offering exact
location information without needing a reference point.
• Applications: Used in motor control, robotic arms, and any system
requiring precise angular position or speed feedback.
b. Potentiometers
• Function: Measure linear or angular displacement by varying resistance,
providing a voltage output proportional to the position.
• Applications: Often used in servo motors, where feedback on joint angles is
required.
c. Tachometers
• Function: Measure the rotational speed of a shaft, typically in revolutions per
minute (RPM).
• Applications: Used in speed control systems, where maintaining a constant
speed is crucial.
d. Gyroscopes
• Function: Measure angular velocity and orientation, providing feedback on the
robot's rotational motion.
• Applications: Essential in applications like drones, autonomous vehicles, and
mobile robots for maintaining stability and direction.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
e. Force/Torque Sensors
• Function: Measure the force and torque applied to a robot’s end-effector or
joints, providing feedback for tasks requiring delicate handling or force control.
• Applications: Used in robotic assembly, surgery, and tasks involving
interaction with objects where precise force application is needed.
f. Proximity Sensors
• Function: Detect the presence or absence of objects without physical contact,
often used for collision avoidance or object detection.
• Applications: Common in mobile robots, automated assembly lines, and safety
systems.
4.4 Actuators: Pneumatic, Hydraulic actuators, electric & stepper motors, comparison.
In robotics, actuators are essential components responsible for generating movement in robotic
systems by converting energy into motion. They receive control signals from the robot's
controller to perform specific tasks, such as moving arms, grippers, or wheels. These
movements can be linear, rotary, or oscillatory, enabling robots to execute precise actions like
lifting, grasping, or rotating objects (Fig 4.1).
Robotic actuators come in various types, such as electric motors, hydraulic systems, and
pneumatic systems, each offering distinct advantages in terms of speed, power, and precision.
Electric actuators are commonly used in robots for their accuracy and control, while hydraulic
and pneumatic actuators are preferred in tasks requiring greater force.
Fig 4.1 Application of Actuators in Robotics
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Actuators enable robots to interact with their environment, making them vital in a wide range
of applications, from industrial automation to medical robotics. By controlling robotic joints,
arms, and end effectors, actuators allow robots to perform complex tasks, enhancing
productivity and precision in industries such as manufacturing, healthcare, and logistics.
Actuators classify first by the type of motion they produce. While rotary actuators generate
rotation, linear actuators move in a straight path. Either type can also take the designation of
oscillating if the movement cycles regularly.
Actuator types are next characterized by what energy form the actuator employs to convert the
source from a potential state into physical motion. Potential energy is stored energy with the
ability to do work. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. The most common energy sources
are compressed fluids, compressed gas and electricity.
4.4.1 Pneumatic Actuators
Pneumatic actuators use compressed air to create motion, either linear or rotary (Fig 4.2). They
are known for their simplicity, speed, and reliability in industrial applications.
• Advantages:
✓ Fast response time.
✓ Simple and lightweight design.
✓ Cost-effective for basic automation tasks.
• Disadvantages:
✓ Limited precision in control.
✓ Requires a constant supply of compressed air.
✓ Noisy operation.
Applications: Often used in pick-and-place machines, material handling, and other repetitive
tasks where high speed and simple control are sufficient.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Fig.4.2 Pneumatic Actuators
4.4.2 Hydraulic Actuators
Hydraulic actuators operate using pressurized hydraulic fluid to generate force (Fig 4.3). They
are capable of producing significant power, making them suitable for heavy-duty applications.
• Advantages:
✓ High force output, ideal for lifting heavy loads.
✓ Smooth and powerful motion.
✓ Reliable in harsh environments.
• Disadvantages:
✓ Complex system requiring maintenance (e.g., fluid leaks).
✓ Bulkier compared to other actuators.
✓ Slower response time than pneumatic actuators.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Applications: Common in construction machinery, heavy robotic arms, and any application
requiring substantial force.
Fig.4.3 Hydraulic Actuators
4.4.3 Electric Actuators
Electric actuators convert electrical energy into mechanical motion (Fig 4.4). They offer
precise control and are widely used due to their versatility and ease of integration.
• Advantages:
✓ High precision and control.
✓ Clean operation without fluids.
✓ Easily integrated with electronic control systems.
• Disadvantages:
✓ Limited power compared to hydraulic systems.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
✓ Sensitive to power fluctuations.
✓ Potentially higher costs for high-performance models.
Applications: Used in robotics, automation systems, and any application requiring accurate
motion control.
Fig.4.4 Electric Actuators
4.4.4 Stepper Motors
Stepper motors are a type of electric motor that moves in discrete steps, allowing for precise
control of position without needing a feedback system (Fig 4.5).
• Advantages:
✓ Excellent precision, with the ability to move to specific positions.
✓ High torque at low speeds.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
✓ Simple and reliable operation.
• Disadvantages:
✓ Can lose steps under heavy load, leading to position errors.
✓ Generally slower than other motor types.
✓ Limited torque and speed capabilities.
Applications: Ideal for 3D printers, CNC machines, and robotic systems requiring precise
positioning.
Fig.4.5 Stepper Motors
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
4.4.5 Comparison of Actuators
• Pneumatic Actuators: Fast and simple, but less precise and noisy. Best for applications
needing speed over precision.
• Hydraulic Actuators: Powerful and smooth, suited for heavy-duty tasks. Require
maintenance and are more complex.
• Electric Actuators: Precise and versatile, ideal for a wide range of applications. Less
powerful than hydraulics but easier to integrate.
• Stepper Motors: Highly precise, perfect for applications where exact positioning is
critical. Slower and less powerful but extremely reliable.
4.5 Position sensors –potentiometers, resolvers, encoders –Velocity sensors, Tactile
sensors, Proximity sensors.
Position, velocity, tactile, and proximity sensors are essential components in robotic systems,
providing critical feedback that enhances the precision and functionality of robots. Position
sensors, such as potentiometers, resolvers, and encoders, are used to measure the angular or
linear position of a robot's joints or parts, enabling accurate control of movement and
positioning (Fig 4.6).
Velocity sensors monitor the speed of the robot’s motion, ensuring smooth operation and
control during dynamic tasks. Tactile sensors allow the robot to detect and respond to physical
touch or pressure, which is crucial for tasks involving manipulation or interaction with objects.
Proximity sensors enable the robot to detect nearby objects without physical contact,
facilitating collision avoidance and spatial awareness. Together, these sensors form the
backbone of a robot’s feedback system, enabling precise and intelligent interaction with its
environment.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Fig 4.6 Application of Position sensor in robotics
4.5.1 Potentiometers
Potentiometers (Fig 4.7) are simple, cost-effective position sensors that measure rotational or
linear displacement. They consist of a resistive element and a movable wiper, which changes
the resistance based on the position.
• Advantages:
✓ Low cost and easy to implement.
✓ Direct analog output proportional to position.
✓ Wide range of applications.
• Disadvantages:
✓ Limited precision.
✓ Wear and tear over time due to mechanical contact.
✓ Sensitivity to environmental conditions like temperature and humidity.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Applications: Commonly used in joystick controls, volume controls, and as feedback devices
in servo systems.
Fig 4.7 Potentiometers
4.5.2 Resolvers
Resolvers (Fig 4.8) are rotary electrical transformers used for measuring angular position. They
generate a signal proportional to the angle of rotation, making them reliable for precise position
sensing.
• Advantages:
✓ High accuracy and resolution.
✓ Robust and durable, withstanding harsh environments.
✓ Continuous rotation without limits.
• Disadvantages:
✓ Complex signal processing required.
✓ Higher cost compared to potentiometers.
✓ Bulky compared to other sensors.
Applications: Often used in aerospace, military, and industrial robotics where reliability and
precision are critical.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Fig 4.8 Resolvers
4.5.3 Encoders
Encoders (Fig 4.9) are position sensors that provide digital signals corresponding to rotational
or linear position. They come in two main types: optical and magnetic.
• Advantages:
✓ High precision and resolution.
✓ Can be used for both position and velocity measurement.
✓ Compact and lightweight.
• Disadvantages:
✓ Sensitive to dust, dirt, and other environmental factors (especially optical
encoders).
✓ More expensive than potentiometers.
✓ Requires an external power source.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Applications: Used in CNC machines, robotics, and industrial automation for precise position
control.
Fig 4.9 Resolvers
4.5.4 Velocity Sensors
Velocity sensors (Fig 4.10) measure the speed of an object, either rotationally or linearly. These
sensors can be based on different principles, such as optical or electromagnetic effects.
• Advantages:
✓ Provide real-time feedback for speed control.
✓ Can be integrated with position sensors like encoders for combined position and
velocity measurement.
✓ Useful for closed-loop control systems.
• Disadvantages:
✓ Some types may be affected by environmental factors.
✓ Requires calibration for accurate measurements.
✓ Can be costly, depending on the technology used.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Applications: Commonly found in automotive systems, robotics, and industrial machinery to
ensure proper speed regulation.
Fig 4.10 Velocity Sensors
4.5.5 Tactile Sensors
Tactile sensors (Fig 4.11) detect physical touch or force applied to an object. They are often
used in robotic hands or grippers to provide feedback on the amount of force being applied.
• Advantages:
✓ Can detect and measure pressure, texture, and other contact properties.
✓ Enhances the ability of robots to interact safely with their environment.
✓ Can be integrated into various surfaces and forms.
• Disadvantages:
✓ Limited sensitivity range depending on the design.
✓ Complex processing required for interpreting tactile data.
✓ May require frequent calibration.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Applications: Used in robotics, prosthetics, and touch-sensitive devices to enable interaction
with objects.
Fig 4.11 Tactile Sensors
4.5.6 Proximity Sensors
Proximity sensors detect the presence or absence of an object within a certain range without
direct contact (Fig 4.12). They can be based on various technologies, including inductive,
capacitive, ultrasonic, and infrared.
• Advantages:
✓ Non-contact operation, reducing wear and tear.
✓ Fast response time and reliable operation.
✓ Can detect a wide range of materials and surfaces.
• Disadvantages:
✓ Limited sensing range depending on the technology.
✓ Sensitivity can vary based on the material and environment.
✓ Higher cost for advanced types like ultrasonic or infrared sensors.
Applications: Widely used in automation, robotics, security systems, and consumer electronics
to detect objects or obstacles.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Fig 4.12 Proximity Sensors
4.6 Manipulator Kinematics
Manipulator kinematics is the study of the motion of robot manipulators without considering
the forces that cause the motion. It involves analysing the positions, velocities, and
accelerations of the various parts of a robot arm to understand how it moves in space.
4.6.1 Homogeneous Transformations for Rotation and Translation
Homogeneous transformations are mathematical tools used to describe the position and
orientation of a robot manipulator in three-dimensional space. They combine both rotation and
translation into a single matrix, making it easier to perform complex transformations.
• Rotation Matrix: Represents the orientation of the manipulator in space. It describes
how the robot's axes are rotated relative to the world coordinate system.
• Translation Vector: Represents the position of the manipulator in space. It describes
the movement of the robot's end-effector from one point to another.
• Homogeneous Transformation Matrix: Combines both the rotation matrix and
translation vector into a single 4x4 matrix. This matrix can be used to transform the
coordinates of points from one frame of reference to another.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
𝑹 𝒅
T=[ ]
𝟎 𝟏
Where:
• R is the 3x3 rotation matrix.
• d is the 3x1 translation vector.
• The last row [0 0 0 1] allows for matrix multiplication of transformation matrices.
4.6.2 D-H Notation (Denavit-Hartenberg Notation)
D-H notation is a standardized way to represent the joint parameters of a robotic manipulator.
It simplifies the process of writing the transformation matrices by systematically defining the
links and joints of the robot.
• Joint Parameters:
1. θ (Theta): The joint angle around the Z-axis.
2. d: The distance along the Z-axis.
3. r/a: The distance along the X-axis.
4. α (Alpha): The twist angle around the X-axis.
• D-H Transformation Matrix
This matrix represents the transformation from one coordinate frame to the next along the
manipulator.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
4.6.3 Forward and Inverse Kinematics
• Forward Kinematics
o Involves calculating the position and orientation of the robot's end-effector
given the joint parameters (angles and distances).
o It uses the D-H parameters to construct a sequence of transformation matrices
that describe the position and orientation of the end-effector in the base
coordinate frame.
• Inverse Kinematics
o Involves determining the joint parameters that will achieve a desired position
and orientation of the end-effector.
o This is often more complex than forward kinematics, as it may have multiple
solutions, no solution, or require solving non-linear equations.
4.7 Case study : Kinematic Modelling of Robotic Arms
Forward kinematics equation of a 4-DOF robotic arm with the concept similar to n-DOF. (Fig
4.13-4.14) .
The kinematic model of the robotic arm deals with its motion without considering forces and
torques associated with it. It provides the position and orientation of end-effector/gripper based
on robot joint’s angular position. It ultimately provides the homogeneous transformation matrix
that tells both the rotation and position of one frame n relative to another frame m. It is denoted
by 𝐻. In order to compute the direct kinematics equation for an open-chain manipulator, a
systematic, general method is to be derived to define the relative position and orientation of two
consecutive links. Thus, the so-called Denavit-Hartenberg convention is adopted.
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Fig 4.13 A 4-DOF Robotic Manipulator
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Fig 4.14 Frame assignment on 4DOF robotic manipulator
Once the link frames have been established, the position and orientation of Frame i with respect
to Frame i − 1 are completely specified by the parameters: 𝜽, 𝜶, r and d, known as DH
parameters.
For link 1, the x0 and x1 are in the same direction. So frame 0 doesn’t need to rotate around the
axis z0. Hence, the value is theta1. If in case, frame 0 has to rotate 90 deg clockwise around the
axis z0 to match axis x0 and x1, then the value would be -90+theta1. Similarly, By looking at
the assigned frame on the robotic arm and the parameters definition, we can fill the DH
parameter (Table 4.1-4.2)
Table 4.1 Symbols for DH Parameter
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
Table 4.2 DH Parameter for 4-DOF
Once the parameter table is computed, Homogeneous transformation matrix is to be found from
the frame n-1 to n by plugging in the parameter values from the table in the matrix given below:
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
The transformation matrices calculated through DH parameters, for each links are given below:
The overall transformation of end-effector w.r.t base frame is computed as:
RV Institute of Technology & Management®
[Link].171/5, Kothanur,8th Phase, JP Nagar, Bengaluru-560076
This homogeneous matrix provides rotation matrix as well as displacement vector of end-
effector w.r.t. base frame. The upper 3 x 3 matrix is rotation matrix and the first three elements
of the fourth column provides the displacement vector.
Forward Kinematics
Forward kinematics is a concept in robotics that deals with the calculation of the position and
orientation of an end-effector based on the known joint angles and link parameters of a robot’s
kinematic chain. The first three row’s element of fourth column of the given matrix provides
the x, y, z position of the end-effector and is given by:
Putting in the values of each joint angles as well as link lengths, we will get the position of the
gripper/end-effector of our robotic arm.