ME322 RENEWABLE ENERGY

TECHNOLOGIES

Introduction to Renewable Energy

Part I: Origin, Types and Resources

Dr. Kihedu, J.

1
 Renewable vs Non-Renewable Energy
• Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that
comes from natural processes that are replenished
constantly on human time-scale.
– The ultimate sources of most of this energy are the sun,
gravity and the earth’s rotation.
• Non-renewable energy are obtained from static stores
and covers energy sources that are either replenished
very slowly or are not replenished by natural processes.
– A non-renewable source can totally be depleted, or depleted
to the point where it is too expensive to extract and convert
to useful energy forms for human use.

2
 Sustainable and Alternative Energy
• Sustainability facilitates meeting the needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs (Brundtland, 1987)
• Sustainable energy supply is provision of energy
development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their needs
– Renewable energy, environmental conservation and energy
efficiency are said to be the pillars of sustainable energy
• Alternative energy is a dynamic term covering alternative
to fossil fuel, but also energy options which need not
necessarily be renewable energy.
3
 Advantages of Renewable Energy Sources
• Large potential, emerging from the sun or from earth
interior.
– Provides promising alternative source of energy and can
contribute to energy security
• Environmental friendliness, allows for sustainable
energy supply.
• High degree of decentralization, available even in
remote areas.
• Increased employment, mainly in small and medium-
sized enterprises.
4
Advantages of Renewable Energy Sources (Cont.)
• The cost of energy is mainly determined by the
investment, implying a higher cost stability and thus
lower financial risks.
• Decentralized production of energy stimulates
regional development, particularly in developing
countries.
• No fuel cost (except for operation and maintenance)
• Allows for dual use of land resources (e.g. agriculture
and wind mills, energy crops)

5
 Drawbacks for Renewable Energy
• Lack of appropriate technology for most renewable
energies.
• Higher investment costs for most of renewable energy
technologies.
– Longer system payback times, higher price per unit of energy.
• Intermittent and diffused nature of renewable energy
supply.
– Hourly, diurnal, seasonal and annual variations
– Need to be concentrated (solar < 1000 W/m2, wind < 400
W/m2, biomass ≈ 0.0002 kW/m2, wave Energy ≈ 100 kW/m2,
geothermal 60 mW/m2, [Electrical Cooker = 900 kW/m2])
– Necessity of back-up power or use of hybrid systems.
– Need for energy storage (difficult for wind and solar PV but
relatively simple for hydro and biomass). 6
 Drawbacks for Renewable Energy
• Renewable energy entails a number of other potential
environmental impacts.
– Renewable energy can make large tracts of land unusable for
competing uses.
– Disrupt marine life, bird life and flora/fauna.
– Produce visual and noise pollution.
– Manufacturing of renewable energy equipments also
consume a significant amount of electricity that may need use
non-renewable energy sources.

7
 Push Factors for Renewable Energy Utilization
Impact of Oil Embargo
• The oil crises 1773/74 and 1979 helped in raising
awareness on the importance of energy in
development.
• The supply and price of oil is and will continue to
dominate the world energy scene through several
decades to come.
• Being the leader in the energy marker, the price of oil
will determine the ceiling price of other fuels and
therefore determining the extent and rates of oil
substitution and investment in alternative energy
resources and conservation.

8
 Push Factors for Renewable Energy Utilization
Greenhouse effect
• This is the major concern as regards the use of carbon
containing fuels e.g. petroleum products and coal.
• Certain gases including CO2 in the atmosphere allow
the ultraviolet and visible radiation from the sun to
pass through and warm the earth, but then absorb the
longer wavelength, infra-re radiation emitted from the
earths surface, creating thermal barrier around the
earth raising the earth’s temperature
• Above behaviour is exactly opposite to that of ozone
which is present higher up in atmosphere.
• The latter is destroyed by fluorocarbons emitted into
atmosphere, adding onto the ‘greenhouse effect
9
 Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
• To maintain the Earth's temperature, energy reaching the
Earth from the sun must equal energy radiated back out from
the Earth. As with incoming radiation, the atmosphere
interferes with outgoing radiation.
• Water vapour absorbs strongly in the 4-7 mm wavelength
band and carbon dioxide in the 13-19 mm wavelength band.
Most outgoing radiation (70%) escapes in the "window"
between 7-13 mm.
• If we had no atmosphere, the average temperature on the
Earth's surface would be about -18°C. However, a natural
background level of 270 ppm CO2 in the atmosphere causes
the temperature to be about 15°C on average, 33°C above the
no-atmosphere basis.
• Human activities are increasingly releasing "anthropogenic
gases" into the atmosphere, which absorb in the 7-13 mm
wavelength range, particularly carbon dioxide, methane,
ozone, nitrous oxides and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's). 10
 Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
• These gases prevent the normal escape of energy and are
expected to lead to an increase in terrestrial temperature. CO2
levels will double by 2030, causing global warming of 1~4°C.
• This would lead to changes in wind patterns and rainfall, with
the possible drying out of the interior of continents and
oceans rising by as much as 30 cm.
• Greenhouse effect is a process by which thermal radiation
from a planetary surface is absorbed by atmospheric
greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated.
• Greenhouse gases percentage contribution to the greenhouse
effect; H2Ovapour 36–70%, CO2 9–26%, CH4 4–9%, O3 3–7%.
• Global warming is the observed century-scale rise in the
average temperature of Earth's climate system.
• Mitigation measures include reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions and enhancement of capacity of carbon sinks. 11
 Push Factors for Renewable Energy Utilization
Global warming and acid rains
• Temperature of the poles has gone up by 4oC in the past
30 years.
• Also the earth’s average temperature will rise by 1.5 to
3.5oC by the years 2030 if the ‘greenhouse effect’
continues at its present rate.
• Increased burning of carbonaceous fuels accelerates the
‘greenhouse effect’ due to the emission of carbon
dioxide, which is the main greenhouse gas.
• Moreover, other emissions e.g. CO2, SO2, soot, etc. from
the combustion cause severe pollutions like acid rains, to
our environment
• Consequently there are many efforts in attempt to cut
down or substitute the use of such fuels
12
 Renewable Energy: Types and Resources

Energy from the Sun

Biomass Energy
Direct Solar Radiation Energy
Hydro Power
Wind Energy
Wave Energy
Ocean Thermal Energy
Geothermal Energy
Tidal Energy

13
 Renewable energy souses and
Solar
technologies
radiation Geothermal Gravitational
heat potential

Solar water heaters, wind turbines, heat pumps

Solar buildings wave power
Tidal range power;
e.g. Severn estuary
Fuel wood, biomass & Tidal stream power
Hydro-electricity;
very large (GW) to biodiesel, ethanol,
very small (100 W) scale wastes Photovoltaic
solar cells
Global Renewable Energy Balance
Incoming short wave solar energy Reflection
(173,000x1012 W) (52,000x1012 W)
100% 30%
Long wave radiation
radiation
(121,000x1012 W)

Energy Entering Atmosphere

(121,000x1012 W)
30%
70%
30% Atmospheric
Boundary

Absorption in the atmosphere

(31,000x1012 W)

Energy absorbed at ground level

(90,000x1012 W)
70%

Photosynthesis/Bio energy
(80x1012 W)
Tidal energy
(3x1012 W)

Moon Hydro energy

Evaporation (10x1012 W)
Wind and wave energy (4,000x1012W)
(370x1012 W)

Geothermal Energy
(32x1012 W)

Fossil fuel
(13x106 W)
(1.44x10-8 % of solar radiation
absorbed by the ground 15
16
 Solar Energy
Origin of Solar Energy
•Belief that energy from sun is indefinite
– Diameter of sun is 1,392,000 km (109 times larger than
earth’s)
– Mass of sun 330,000 times larger than earth’s
•Solar radiation: fusion reaction of hydrogen
•Hydrogen atoms are fused together to form Helium,
releasing energy at the rate of 3.86 x 1026 J/s
– H + H → He + Energy
•The fusion reactions in the solar core take place because
of the very high temperatures and very large pressures
present in the region of the sun

17
 Solar Energy
Origin of Solar Energy (Cont.)
• Surface temp. of the sun is estimated to 5800K.
• Physical models of the sun suggest that the core
temperature is around 15 million degrees and the
central pressure is about 250 billion atmospheres (250
billion times the pressure at sea level).
• Sun is estimated to last five billion years and has
passed its half-life time.
– Seen as renewable because of long time scale to exhaustion
however strictly speaking this is not the case!
• Time taken for the radiation to travel from sun to
earth is 9⅓ minutes.

18
 Solar Radiation Principles
• Sun is a black body
• Stefan’s Law: Radiated power density (W/m2) of a
black body is proportional to its absolute temperature
T raised to the fourth power

Ps   As T s
4

– Ps is Power radiated by the sun (W)

– As is the surface area of the radiating object (m2)
– T is Temperature (K)
– σ is Stefan’s Constant = 5.7 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4

19
 Power from the Sun to the Earth Atmosphere
• From Stefan’s Law

Ps  4 r   T
s
2
s
4

– rs is the radius of the sun (m)

• Radiated power from the sun reaching the earth
atmosphere system per square metre;

Ps  4  rs2 

  
2 
 Ts4

 4 d 
2
m
– d is the average distance from the sun to earth (m) ≈ 149 x
106 km
20
 Total Power Radiated from the Sun to the Earth

• Class Exercise: Show that the power radiated from the

sun reaching the earth atmosphere system per square
metre is 1,395 W/m2.
• Total radiated power from the sun to the earth;

Pe  1395  r e
2

– re is the radius of the earth-atmosphere (m) → 6,378.4 km

• Power radiated by Earth-Atmosphere System;

Pe  4 r   T
e
2
e
4

– Average temperature of the earth is 253 K

21
 The Solar System

• Earth rotates sun in elliptic orbit

• Axis of earth inclined 23.5° from N 22
 Solar Constant
• Definition: The power radiated from the sun reaching the
earth atmosphere system per square metre ≈ 1,395 W/m2.
• Some absorbed and reflected by atmosphere, reduced to
about 1000 W/m2 in tropical countries at earth's surface.
N

kW
S0  1.395 2
m
X
Equator
X.1

23
S
 Earths Axis of Rotation

23½0

The sun can never be directly overhead for latitudes

greater than 23½oN (Tropic of Cancer) and greater than
23½oS (Tropic of Capricorn) 24
 Effect of Latitude on Solar Radiation Intensity

‘X’ Cos 
N
X.1

Latitude
 kW
2
 S 0Cos
m

kW
S 0  1.395 2 S
m
Average daily global irradiation or insolation → solar
energy received per day per m2 on horizontal surface. 25
 Solar Radiation Terminologies

• Global radiation: whole

radiation on the earth's
surface covering of direct
radiation, diffuse radiation
and reflected radiation.
• Some solar energy systems
make use of all incoming
radiation (e.g. PV panels)
• Others only use direct
radiation (e.g. a solar
heater with a parabolic
dish)
26
 Directed, Diffuse and Reflected Radiations
Direct Radiation
•Propagates in straight line from sun and therefore casts
shadows.
•Heavily depends on cloud cover.
•Can be focused with lenses or mirrors.
•On sunny day varies from 0 to 90% of total radiation.
Diffuse Radiation
•Scattered by clouds or dust particles in atmosphere.
•Clouds and dust absorb and scatter radiation.
•Reduce amount that reaches ground.
•On cloudy day up to 100% of radiation.
Reflected Radiation
•Radiation reflected by ground and other physical
surroundings 27
 Incident Radiation

Northern and Southern latitudes receive less radiation

than the equatorial zone 28
 Solar Irradiance vs Solar Insolation

• Solar Irradiance: Solar radiation striking surface, or the

power received per unit area from the sun.
– Measured in watts/kilowatts per square metre
– Irradiance is higher if a surface is at a large angle to
the sun.
– Figure (next slide) shows changes in power received
on flat surface
• Solar Insolation: is measure of solar energy received
on specific area over a specific period, normally a day.
– Integration of irradiance over specified time
– Measured in kWh/m2/day or MJ/m2/day

29
Solar Irradiance (power received on flat surface)

30
 Factors affecting solar radiation
•Climate and the cloud cover
•Latitude of the site
•Time of the year
•Time of the day
 Biomass Energy Resources: Definition
• Biomass is composed of a mixture of organic molecules
containing carbon base, hydrogen, oxygen, some nitrogen
and small quantities of other atoms, including alkali,
alkaline earth and heavy metals.
• Biomass is biological
material derived from living,
or recently living organisms.
Often refers to plant-
derived materials that are
specifically lignocellulosic
biomass.
– Wood remains the largest
biomass energy source today.
32
 Biomass Energy Resources: Origin
• The carbon used to construct biomass is absorbed from
the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2) by plant life, using
energy from the sun
• Photosynthesis: Plants usually convert light into chemical
energy with a photosynthetic efficiency of 3 - 6%.
– The general equation;
6CO2 + H2O + light → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Carbon dioxide + Water + Light energy → Sugar + Oxygen

– In oxygenic equation for photosynthesis, water is the electron

donor and, since its hydrolysis releases oxygen :
2n CO2 + 4n H2O + photons → 2(CH2O)n + 2n O2 + 2n H2O
carbon dioxide + water + light energy → carbohydrate + oxygen + water
33
34
 Biomass Energy Resources: Origin
• Plants may subsequently be eaten by animals and thus
converted into animal biomass. However the primary
absorption is performed by plants.
• If plant material is not eaten it is either broken down by
micro-organisms or burned:
– If broken down it releases the carbon back to the atmosphere,
mainly as either carbon dioxide (CO2) or methane (CH4),
depending upon the conditions and processes involved.
– If burned the carbon is returned to the atmosphere as CO2.
• Biomass challenge is not availability, but sustainable
management, conversion and delivery to the market.
– Global energy consumption ≈ 400 exajoules
– Theoretically harvestable bioenergy ≈ 2900 exajoules
– Technically available on sustainable basis ≈ 270 exajoules 35
 Facts and Figures
• Current bio-energy consumption ≈ 50 exajoules.
• Developing countries (China, India) ≈ 35% of country
total energy consumption.
• Least developing countries ≈ 90% of country total energy
consumption.
• Associations with poverty;
– High pollution leading to health problems in developing
countries.
– Low efficiency due to inefficient equipment (stoves) and high
moisture content.
– Contradicting land use for energy and food crops.

36
 Important Non-energy Uses
• Food for humans and animal feed
• Timber and other construction materials
• Clothing (cotton, wool, linen, leather)
• Paper, packaging, etc
Input Output

CO2 Food (Carbohydrates,

Proteins)
Water Fuel (Building
PLANT
Materials)
Nutrients Fibre (Cotton, oils,
 Nitrogen N rubber)
 Phosphorous P
 Potassium K Waste

 Fertilizer
 Fuel
 Animal Feed
Water Heat Oxygen Leaves
(Transpiration) (Respiration) Stems 37
Roots
 Major processes in plants
• Photosynthesis: covered earlier
• Respiration: The process of respiration breaks down the
stored food and releases energy for the plant. The plant
uses this energy for growth, reproduction and repair.
C6 H10O5  6O2  6CO2  5H 2O  Heat 17.6 MJ / kg
– During the day, plants absorb CO2 and give off O2.
– At night plants absorbs O2 and give off CO2.
– The NET effect is absorption of CO2 and release of O2.
• Transpiration: The process through which plants give off
water as result of sun warming water inside plant, changing
it into water vapour and hence cooling the plant.
– Heat lost is latent heat of evaporation = 2.2 MJ/kg
– Note: Water and minerals enter plant through roots by osmosis.
38
 Biomass from Animals
Input Output
WORK
FOOD (Muscle Power)

FOOD
(Meat, Milk)
WATER ANIMAL
MATERIALS
OXYGEN (Wool, hides, feathers)

Waste Products
CO2 Heat EXCRETER (Unused Food)
Water  Fertilizer
 Source of energy

39
 Hydropower Resource and Hydrologic Cycle
• Hydropower resource depends much on hydrological cycle.
• Results in the formation of rivers which is the main source
of hydropower.

40
 Terminologies
• Head
– Water must fall from a higher elevation to a lower one
to release its stored energy.
– The difference between these elevations (the water
levels in the forebay and the tailbay) is called head
• Dams: Solid material built across the river to block the flow of
water for the purpose of storing it.
• Power is proportional to the product of head x flow
• Power = gρH Q t (kW)

41
42
 Hydropower Potential
• Total theoretical potential of hydro power is
approximately 9 x 1012 W
• Hydro power resource world wide:
 Total potential 2857 GW
 Total developed 152 GW (About 5%)
• Hydro power resource in Africa
 Total potential 780 GW (27% of world’s)
 Total Developed 2 GW (~ 0.25%)

43
 Origin of the Wind
• Energy released by sun fusion reaction produces 3.94 ×
1023 kW,
• Radiations go through 150 million km to the earth that
receives about 1.73 × 1014 kW,
• About 1% is absorbed by atmosphere in form of wind
• Pressure gradient motivates force that causes the
movement of air from high pressure areas towards lower
pressure areas
• The downward acting gravitational field of the earth
limits vertical air motion, therefore horizontal
movements are dominate.
44
 Origin of the Wind (Cont)
• Equator is a low pressure area where warm air is always
raising and flow towards poles which are high pressure
areas where cold and dense air is always sinking and flows
towards equator.
• Centripetal force is usually set due to earth rotation at a
speed of 600 kilometers per hour at the equator
decreasing to zero at the poles.
• Coriolis Force is the apparent deflection of air movement
to the right of their line of motion in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
• As a result Geostrophic Wind blow at right angles to the
pressure gradient that is parallel to the isobars.
45
46
47
 Trade winds and doldrums
 Air movement towards the equator is called trade winds
These are warm and steady breeze that blows
almost continuously.

 North easterly and South easterly trade winds meet at

the equator.
 The trade winds then converge to produce upward
winds called doldrums.

48
 Prevailing westerlies & Polar easterlies

• Between 30 and 60 degrees latitude, the winds that moves

towards the poles appear to curve to the east.
• Winds are named from the direction in which they
originate, these winds are called Prevailing Westerlies.

• About 60 degrees latitude in both poles, the prevailing

westerlies join with the polar easterlies to reduce upward
motion.
• These winds originates from east hence referred to as Polar
Easterlies
49
 Local Wind
Local wind patterns are affected by geographical features
(mountains, sea etc) and metrological features such as
troughs, anticyclones and Inter-Tropic Convergence (ITC).

50
 Mountains and valleys winds
• A mountain slope may receive more sun and warm
faster than the valley below it.
• Warm air rises up the slope, cool air rushes in near the
base of the mountain causing wind to sweep through
the valley.
– This is called Valley wind
• At night the wind changes the direction.
– This is called Mountain wind

51
 Sea and land breezes
• During the day, the land and water absorbs radiant energy
from the sun.
• However, they don’t change in temperature at the same
rate due to different specific heat.
– Specific heat is the amount of heat energy need to raise
the temperature of 1 g of substance 1 °C.
– Water has high specific heat, more energy is required to
increase its temperature.
– Because of its low specific heat, land heats up faster and
cools more rapidly than water.
• The air over the land also heats more rapidly than over the
water. 52
 Sea and land breezes (Cont)
• The heated air over the land rises creating an area of low
pressure. The cooler air in the high pressure area over the
sea will move to the land.
– This is called Sea Breeze because wind is coming from
the sea to the land.
• At night the land cools more rapidly than water means the
sea now is warmer than the land and air over the sea
becomes warmer than of the land.
– The wind will blow from land towards the sea i.e. Land
Breeze

53
54
 Effect of Topography on Wind Flow
• Obstacle e.g. buildings, trees, hill
• Col (Favorable wind sites), valleys

High
Velocity

OUTER
SPACE
Turbulence
u
h

SHADOW

5 10
h h
100h

Building Hill 55
 Effect of Topography on Wind Flow (Cont.)

Col: Area of high wind speed due High wind speed along the
to the convergence of moving air at valley
this small area.
56
 Wave Energy Resource
• Waves are caused by friction between wind and water
surfaces such as in the ocean.
• Steady wave system will build up where prevailing winds blow
across long uninterrupted surface e.g. oceans
• Waves can persist for periods of 12 or 20 hours over
thousands of kilometers
– They tend to smooth out power fluctuations in wind
– Typical wave amplitude is 2 to 3 m
– Typical energy contained is 10 kJ/m2 of surface area
– Average velocity is about 10 m/s
• The highest energy waves are concentrated off the Western
Coasts in the 40o latitude North and South.
• Power in the wave fronts varies in these areas between 30
and 70 kW/m, with peaks to 100kW/m in the Atlantic.
57
Distribution of Deep Water Wave Power Resources

58 58
 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY RESOURCE
• Two-thirds of earth's surface is covered by oceans which
are vast reservoirs of renewable energy.
• This makes them the world's largest solar energy collector
and energy storage system.
• On an average day, 60 million square kilometers of
tropical seas absorb an amount of solar radiation
equivalent to about 250 billion barrels of oil
• In a four day period, oceans absorb thermal energy from
the sun and kinetic energy from the wind equivalent to all
the world's known oil reserves.

59
60 60
 Source of Tidal Energy
• Tides are caused by gravitational attraction of the moon and
the sun acting upon the oceans of the rotating earth.
 Gravitational pulls themselves do not provide energy
 Cause by frictional drag on the rotation of the earth
• The relative motions of these bodies cause the surface of the
oceans to be raised and lowered periodically, according to the
number of interacting cycles.
 Greatest affect when moon and sun combine forces
 Bays and inlets amplify the height of the tide
 For energy production, height difference to be ≥ 5 m
 Overall potential of 3000 gigawatts from the tides
61
Gravitational Effect of Sun and Moon on Tidal Range

62
 Interacting Cycles
Half day cycle
• Due to the rotation of the earth within moon gravitational field.
Fourteen (14) day cycle
• Resulting from the gravitational field of the moon combining with
that of the sun to give alternating spring (maximum - a large rise
and fall of the sea at the time of the new and full moon) and neap
(minimum - a very small rise and fall of the sea at the time of the
first and third quarters of the moon).
A half year cycle
• Due to the inclination of the moon's orbit to that of the earth,
giving maxima in the spring tides in March and September
Other cycles
• Such as those over 19 years and 1600 years, arising from further
complex gravitational interactions.
63
 Introduction to Geothermal
• "Geo" means earth, and
"thermal" means heat.
– 70% comes from the
decay of radioactive
– 30% energy from
residual heat left over
from Earths formation
• Below the crust of the earth,
the top layer of the mantle is a
hot liquid rock called magma.

64
Introduction to Geothermal

• Below the crust of the earth, the

top layer of the mantle is a hot
liquid rock called magma.
• The crust of the earth floats on
liquid magma mantle.
• When liquid magma breaks
through the surface of the earth
in a volcano, it is called lava.

65
 Introduction to Geothermal
• Heat flows outward from the center as
a result of radioactive decay.
• Hot spots located 2 to 3 km form the
surface.
• The crust (30 and 60 km thick),
insulates us from the interior heat.
• Temp at base of crust is about 1000o
C, increasing slowly to the core.
• In average, for every 100 meters below
ground, the temperature of the earth
increases about 3o.

66
Tectonic Plates

67
 Tectonic Plates
• Plates are in constant motion (several centimeters/yr).
• When collision or grinding occurs, it can create mountains,
volcanoes, geysers and earthquakes.
• At the junctions of these plates, magma can escape as lava.

68
 Geothermal Energy

• Energy form earth’s inferior.

• Earth holds a great deal of energy under its surface in the
form of heat.
• Total rate of heat production from this source is
32x1012W.
• Dividing by total surface area of earth gives an average
flux of 62 kW/km2 or 0.062 W/m2 (very low if compared
with solar radiation).

69
 Geothermal energy
• Due to earth faults (cracks) or permeable rock, sometimes water
makes its way downward close to the hot rocks near magma and
get heated.
– In some areas heated water from underneath can
come to the surface hot and sometimes boiling.
• If a geothermal plant uses heated water faster than groundwater is
recharged, it will run out of water.
• Geothermal reservoirs
– Low temperature (<150° C) - heating purposes
– High temperature (>150° C) - electricity production

70
 Geothermal Energy
Hot spring

In some places too hot..

71
 Geothermal Reservoirs
• High-Temperature Hot Water: Hot water with temperatures above
200°C (392°F) are usually utilized using a flash technology where hot
water is sprayed into a low-pressure tank. The water vaporizes to
steam, which is routed to the turbine
• Moderate-temperature hot water: Hot water resources below
200°C (392°F) are utilized using a binary cycle technology where the
hot water vaporizes a secondary working fluid, which then drives
the turbine.
• Earth Energy heat contained in shallow ground is used to directly
heat or cool homes and commercial buildings through "direct-use"
technologies such as geothermal heat pumps (GHP) and district
heating systems.

72
 Other Forms of Geothermal Energy
Hot dry rock: consists of dry, impermeable rock. To use it,
water must be pumped into the rock at high pressures to
widen existing fissures and create an underground reservoir
of steam or hot water
Magma: molten or partially molten rock found below the
earth's crust. Magma reaches temperatures up to 1200°C
(2192°F). While some magma bodies exist at accessible
depths, a practical way to extract magma energy has yet to
be developed
Geo-pressured Brines: hot, pressurized waters containing
dissolved methane. Both the heat and methane can be used
for power generation

73
Geothermal Energy Potential – Global

74
 ME322 RENEWABLE ENERGY
TECHNOLOGIES

Introduction to Renewable Energy

Part II: Current Trends and Limitations

Dr. Kihedu, J.

75
 Current Trends – Wind Energy
• Wind has demonstrated the potential for innovation
and market growth to reduce costs and is now a
proven and effective technology with the potential to
become a fully competitive generation option, but
continued market growth will be needed to keep
driving down costs.
• Wind power costs at the best sites onshore are already
close to competitive with fossil fired alternatives.
• Europe has about 74% of the world’s installed wind
capacity.
• The European wind energy industry is one of the
fastest growing industries, with annual growth rates of
50% during recent years.
76
Global markets 2003

77
 Current Trends – Solar Energy
• Photovoltaics are well established in a number of
important niche markets, many of which are likely to
continue to expand.
• Policy support for PV is both ambitious in several
countries and, on a per kW basis and compared to
other renewables, expensive.
• PV appears to offer tremendous potential for long-term
cost reduction through market growth and innovation
over the next 10-20 years.
• Europe has taken an step forward and it has the lead in
applications of PV for developing countries.
• The development of next generation solar thermal
power plants is currently under way.
78
SOLAR ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS

Solar Thermal Conversion Technologies and Applications

Photovoltaic Conversion Technologies and Applications

Sun
Electricity
Thermal
(applications)
applications

79
 Current Trends - Biomass
• The key challenges facing biomass for
electricity generation are to commercialise
high efficiency generating plant and to
secure sustainable supplies of relatively low
cost fuel.
• This is likely to require more extensive
demonstration of gasification technology
and support for the development of energy
crop markets.
80
 Biomass Co-generation

• Cogeneration or
combined heat
and power (CHP) is
the simultaneously
generation of
electricity and
useful heat.
• Cogeneration
systems provide
heating and power
for an industrial
site or to the grid.
 Ethanol Fuel - trends
Ethanol fuel is a biofuel alternative to gasoline, which is
gaining popularity world-wide
Car engines can be designed to run on 10%, 50% even
100% pure ethanol

It is cleaner burning
than gasoline
Worldwide, the use of
ethanol is rapidly
increasing
Brazil is the world
leader in ethanol fuels
 “E” Numbers
• Ethanol fuel mixtures have "E" numbers which
describe the percentage of ethanol in the mixture by
volume, for example, E85 is 85% ethanol and 15%
gasoline
• Low ethanol blends, from E5 to E25, are also known
as gasohol, though internationally the most common
use of the term gasohol refers to the E10 blend

• Gasohol has higher octane,

or antiknock, properties than
gasoline and burns more
slowly, more cooler, and
more completely, resulting in
reduced emissions of some
pollutants
 Current Trends – Wave Energy
• Overall, there is considerable uncertainty
surrounding the economics of wave energy,
reflecting the relatively immature status of
the technology and market.
• Nevertheless, there is clear evidence that
the (theoretical) economics are steadily
improving as RD&D progresses, and
significant cost reductions have been
achieved.
84
 Current Trends – Geothermal Energy
• Comparing statistical data for end-1996, it can be seen
that there has been an increase in world geothermal
power plant capacity and utilisation also direct heat
systems has shown additional increase in their use.
• Geothermal power generation growth is continuing, but
at a lower pace than in the previous decade, while
direct heat uses show a strong increase compared to
the past.
• Six countries with the largest electric power capacity
are: USA with 2,228 MWe, followed by Philippines 1,863
Mwe, in addition to (Mexico, Italy, Indonesia, Japan)
with capacity in the range of 550-750 MWe each. These
six countries represent 86% of the world capacity.
 Geothermal Energy for Direct Use by the Ten
Largest Users Worldwide
.

86
Geothermal Utilisation 2005
Ten Top Countries

87
 Current Trends – Renewable Energy
• Overall, renewable technologies are divers in terms of
both commercial and technological maturity.
• Some are close to competing with fossil fuels and may
be cheaper if environmental externalities are included,
but others are much further from market viability.
• Appropriate policies are needed that allow those
options and applications that are close to commercial
viability to flourish, whilst ensuring that options which
hold promise for the longer term are matured through
their early stages.

88
89
 Future Prospects for Renewable Energy

• Long-term perspective, renewable energies can replace

the conventional modes of energy production (coal, oil)
• Could be used to a great extent to replace fossil energy
• Hydro plants are common since long time
• Wind generators and geothermal power plants are
increasingly being used
• Tidal power application has reached a stage of
commercialisation
• Wind, hydro, tidal and geothermal energies are not
available at all places and at all times

90
Primary energy consumed per capita

91
Oil consumption per capita

92
Natural gas consumption per capita

93
CO2 Emissions by Country

94
Carbon Dioxide Concentrations

95
Global Temperatures

96