Chapter 3 Minerals, Rocks, and Structures

Section 1 What Are Minerals?

What Do You See?

Learning Outcomes Think About It

In this section, you will There are an estimated 9000 different species of birds around
• Define the term “mineral” in the world.
your own words.
• What are some ways to identify birds?
• Evaluate the usefulness of
various physical properties Even if you are not a birdwatcher, try to list at least four or five
for describing and identifying different features that could help you identify different kinds of
different minerals. birds. Make sure you consider other features besides purely visual
• Explore how mineral crystals ones. Record your ideas in your Geo log. Be prepared to discuss
are constructed and how the
your responses with your small group and the class.
external form of a crystal
reflects its ionic structure.
• Identify a variety of mineral
Investigate
specimens according to their In this Investigate, you will observe the properties of crystals and
physical properties.
mineral samples. You will then use a set of observations and tests
to identify minerals.
Part A: Properties of Crystals
1. In a small group, use a magnifying glass or dissecting
microscope to observe three different kinds of crystals: table
salt (sodium chloride), alum (hydrated potassium aluminum
sulfate), and Epsom salts (magnesium sulfate). You might find
it easiest to view the crystals on black construction paper.

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 Section 1 What Are Minerals?

2. What differences do you notice between

d) Which properties are the least useful?
their shapes? In what ways are the
crystals similar? 2. Make a class list of all the properties
the different groups came up with
a) Record your observations and sketch to describe the minerals. Discuss the
the shape of each of the crystals in usefulness of the properties.
your log. Label each type of crystal.
a) In your log, keep a record of the
Part B: Properties of Minerals class list of the most useful properties
1. Examine the photographs of the in describing minerals.
minerals shown, or a set of mineral Part C: Mineral Identification
samples that you are provided.
1. Work in small groups to identify the
a) Make a list of properties you can mineral samples you examined in Part
use to describe the minerals. For B of this Investigate. Your teacher will
example, color may be a property give you a test kit containing:
that you would use to describe a • a piece of unglazed porcelain tile
particular mineral. (called a streak plate),
Check your list of properties with your teacher • a magnet or paper clip, and
before testing the minerals. Some properties, • some of the minerals of the Mohs
while useful, should only be tested with teacher
direction.
scale to test hardness.
Decide how you could use each piece
b) Write a brief description of each of equipment to help you identify
mineral sample using the properties the minerals. Read the appropriate
that you listed. sections of the Digging Deeper to
help you determine what tests would
c) Which properties are the most
be appropriate.
useful in describing an individual
mineral sample?

A B C D

E F G H

I J K L

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 Chapter 3 Minerals, Rocks, and Structures

Check your plan with your teacher before b) Use the following Mineral
proceeding.
Identification Key to assign mineral
Test as many of the properties as names to your samples. Compare
you can to describe each mineral as your list of mineral properties and
completely as possible. names to those of other groups. Your
teacher will lead a discussion on the
a) Record your findings in a data table. correct mineral names and why some
Be sure to note any special properties groups might have gotten different
exhibited by your samples. names for the same mineral.

Mineral Identification Key

Specific
Mineral Name Hardness Streak Cleavage Crystal Shape Color Other Properties
Gravity
Corundum 9 White 4 None Commonly six- Gray, red, brown,
(Med.–High) sided crystals blue

Topaz 8 White 3.5 One perfect Orthorhombic or Colorless, yellow,

(Med.–High) massive blue, brown
Quartz 7 White 2.7 None Hexagonal or Any color to Conchoidal fracture,
(Medium) massive colorless glassy to greasy luster
Potassium 6 White 2.6 Two at 90° Monoclinic or White, pink,
feldspar (Medium) triclinic brown
Plagioclase 6 White 2.6 Two at 90° Triclinic (rare) Blue-gray, black, Striations on some
feldspar (Medium) white cleavage planes
Magnetite 6 Dark 5.2 None Massive Dark gray to black Magnetic, metallic
gray (High) luster
Pyrite 6 Dark 5.0 None Commonly cubic Brass yellow, may Metallic luster, brittle
gray (High) crystals tarnish brown
Apatite 5 White 3.1 One poor Commonly six- Brown, green,
(Medium) sided crystals blue, yellow, black
Hematite 5 Red to 5.0 None Hexagonal Red, steel-gray Red form—earthy
red- (High) luster, gray form—
brown metallic luster
Fluorite 4 White 3.0 Octahedral Commonly cubic Colorless, purple,
(Medium) crystals blue, yellow, green
Calcite 3 White 2.8 Three Hexagonal Colorless, white, Transparent to
(Medium) perfect yellow, gray translucent, reacts
with HCl
Muscovite mica 2.5 White 2.7 One perfect Monoclinic Colorless, yellow, Elastic, flexible sheets
(Medium) light brown
Biotite mica 2.5 Gray- 2.7 One perfect Monoclinic Very dark brown to Elastic, flexible sheets
brown (Medium) black
Galena 2.5 Gray 7.5 Cubic Commonly cubic Silvery gray Metallic luster
(Very high) crystals
Halite 2.5 White 2.5 Cubic Cubic crystals Colorless, white Salty taste
(Medium)
Talc 1 White 2.7 One perfect Monoclinic (rare) White, gray, yellow Soapy feel, pearly or
(Medium) greasy luster

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 Section 1 What Are Minerals?

Digging Deeper
MINERALS
Types of Minerals Geo Words
In the Investigate, you first observed the properties of crystals and crystal: a solid
mineral samples. Crystals are solid materials. The particles of crystals are material, whose
atoms, molecules, or
arranged in an orderly, repeating pattern. You then used observations
ions are arranged in
and tests to identify minerals. Minerals have been important to humans an orderly, repeating
for a long time. Early humans used red hematite and black manganese pattern.
oxide to make cave paintings. People in the Stone Age made tools out mineral: a naturally
of hard, fine-grained rocks. In the Bronze Age, people discovered how occurring, inorganic,
to combine copper and tin from minerals into a metallic mixture (alloy) solid material that
consists of atoms
called bronze. Later, in the Iron Age, people made tools of iron. Iron is that are arranged
contained in minerals like hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4). Fe is in a regular pattern
the chemical symbol for iron. and has characteristic
chemical composition,
Today, minerals are used in thousands of ways. Feldspar is used to make crystal structure, and
porcelain. Calcite is used to make cement. Iron and manganese, together physical properties.
with small amounts of several other metals, make steel that is used to
make buildings, trains, cars, and many other things. Gypsum is used
to make plaster and wallboard. These are just a few examples of how
minerals are used in your daily lives.

Figure 1 The minerals red hematite and black manganese oxide were used
by early humans to make cave drawings.

To be considered a mineral, a material must meet five criteria.

• Minerals are solid, not gas or liquid.
• Minerals are inorganic. That means they are not alive and never
have been.
• Minerals occur naturally. They are not manufactured.

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• Minerals have definite chemical compositions. These can be expressed as

chemical formulas, such as SiO2, Ag, or Fe2O3.
• Minerals have a regular three-dimensional arrangement of atoms. This is
Geo Words called a crystal structure.
native-element Some minerals, called native-element minerals, consist of only one
mineral: a mineral element. (See Figure 2.) A good example is gold (Au), which is often found
consisting of only one as nuggets or pieces of pure gold not combined with any other element.
element.
Copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and silver (Ag) are other native elements. However,
element: a substance
that cannot be most minerals are combinations of elements. For example, quartz, with the
broken down into formula SiO2, is made of silicon and oxygen. (See Figure 3.) Calcite (CaCO3)
simpler substances is made of calcium, carbon, and oxygen.
by chemical means;
an element is
composed of atoms
with identical atomic
numbers.
rocks: naturally
occurring collections
of mineral grains.
aggregate: a
collection of particles
of a material.

Figure 2 Copper is a native-element mineral.

Figure 3 Quartz is a mineral composed of the elements silicon and oxygen.

Rocks are naturally occurring collections or aggregates of mineral grains.

Some rocks consist of only one mineral. However, most contain several
different kinds of minerals. Sometimes you can see the mineral grains, and
other times they are too small to see without being magnified. Granite
consists mostly of large crystals of feldspar, quartz, and mica, as shown in
Figure 4. Basalt consists mostly of tiny crystals of feldspar and pyroxene.

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Figure 4 Granite is a rock composed of several different types of minerals.

Geo Words
Rocks that contain valuable minerals are called ores. To remove the ores: rocks that
valuable minerals, the ore first has to be mined. Two methods of mining contain valuable
include surface mining and underground mining. After being mined, the minerals.
valuable mineral is then separated from the rest of the ore. This is done atom: the smallest
unit of a chemical
through processes like crushing, sieving, melting, or settling through a element that has
liquid. Most metals and many important nonmetals are refined from all the element’s
ores. Valuable minerals are not found evenly in Earth’s crust. Finding new properties; it
deposits is an important first step in mining. The mining company needs to consists of a nucleus
surrounded by
understand the properties of the minerals and the ores that contain them. electrons.
The Chemistry and Structure of Minerals ion: an atom with
one or more electrons
As you saw in the Investigate, minerals can be very different from one removed (or added),
another. The reason for this is that all minerals have a specific chemical giving it a positive
makeup. Minerals consist of atoms of one or more chemical elements. (or negative) charge.
Atoms are the smallest unit of a chemical element that has all the electron: a subatomic
particle with a
element’s properties. Each chemical element has different chemical negative electric
and physical properties. charge, which orbits
around the nucleus
The atoms in minerals occur in a regular three-dimensional arrangement. of the atom.
(See Figure 5 on the next page.) The atoms in almost all minerals are in
the form of ions. Ions are atoms that have an electric charge. This charge
is due to electrons being added to or removed from the atom. Electrons
are particles that orbit around the nucleus of the atom. They have a
negative charge. The ions in a mineral are packed together in a way
that brings the ions as close together as possible. As a result, positively
charged ions are in close contact with negatively charged ions. Objects
with unlike electric charges are attracted to each other. These forces of
attraction hold the mineral together as a solid.

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Figure 5 This expanded view of

halite (sodium chloride) shows
the orderly three-dimensional
arrangement of sodium and
chlorine atoms.

Identifying Minerals
The atoms in a mineral affect the color, shape, hardness, and other
properties of the mineral. The way the atoms are arranged also affects
the properties. Geologists use a variety of tests to describe, compare,
and identify minerals. Some of these tests are simple. They can be done
with simple equipment. In the Investigate, you tested mineral samples
for hardness, luster, streak, and color. You also tested to see if they
were attracted to a magnet. Cleavage is another important property of
minerals. Cleavage describes how a mineral breaks when under stress.
You may have observed this in your investigation. Other tests require
special, expensive equipment. These include specific gravity, crystal shape,
electrical conductivity, and reaction to acid.

Geo Words Hardness

hardness: the Hardness is the resistance of a mineral to scratching. Mineralogists use a
resistance of a relative scale of hardness. It is called the Mohs scale and is given below.
mineral to scratching.
1. Talc
Mohs scale: a
standard of 10 2. Gypsum
minerals by which the
3. Calcite
hardness of a mineral
may be rated. 4. Fluorite
5. Apatite
6. Orthoclase
7. Quartz
8. Topaz
9. Corundum
10. Diamond

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Each mineral in the scale scratches minerals earlier in the scale and is
scratched by minerals later in the scale. Diamond (with a hardness of 10)
is the hardest natural substance known. The mineral talc (with a hardness
of 1) is one of the softest. The way to test the hardness of an unknown
mineral is to scratch it with a material of known hardness. If the mineral
is scratched, it is not as hard. If the unknown mineral scratches the
known material, then it is harder. Here are the hardnesses, on the Mohs
scale, of some common materials:
fingernail: about 2.5
iron nail: about 4.5
knife blade: a little more than 5
window glass, masonry nail: 5.5
steel file: 6.5
Luster Geo Words
Luster describes the way a mineral reflects light. Luster is either metallic luster: the reflection
or nonmetallic. Minerals with metallic luster look like polished metal. of light from the
surface of a mineral,
Nonmetallic lusters are often described as glassy (or vitreous), waxy, described by its
pearly, earthy, or dull. Pyrite and galena have metallic luster. Quartz quality and intensity.
and calcite have a vitreous (glassy) to greasy luster. Feldspar has a pearly
luster. (See Figures 6a–d.)

Figure 6a Quartz has a vitreous luster. Figure 6b Feldspar has a pearly luster.

Figure 6c Galena shows a metallic luster. Figure 6d Pyrite has a metallic luster.

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Geo Words Streak

streak: the color Streak is the color of the powdered mineral. To determine the streak of
of a mineral in its
a mineral, scratch it across a piece of unglazed porcelain tile (a streak
powdered form,
usually obtained by plate). Many minerals have a distinctive streak color. Streak color may be
scratching the mineral different from the color of the mineral sample. For example, hematite is
on a streak plate and often dark gray in color, but it always has a red streak.
observing the mark it
leaves. Specific Gravity
specific gravity: the
ratio of the weight Specific gravity is a ratio of the weight of the mineral to the weight of
of a given volume of an equal volume of water. Water has a specific gravity of 1. Galena is
a substance to the a mineral that contains lead. It has a specific gravity of about 7.5. That
weight of an equal means it is about 7.5 times as dense as water. Most nonmetallic minerals
volume of water.
have specific gravities less than 3. These include minerals such as quartz,
cleavage: the
feldspar, and calcite.
breaking of a mineral
along regularly Cleavage
oriented planes
of weakness, thus Many minerals have cleavage. This means that when they break, they tend
reflecting crystal to break along regularly oriented planes of weakness. (See Figures 7a–d.)
structure.
Cleavage planes form along planes of weak atomic bonds in the mineral.
For example, mica splits easily into sheets because there are very weak

Figure 7a Muscovite has one direction of Figure 7b Halite has three directions of
cleavage. cleavage. They are at 90° to each other.

Figure 7c Calcite has three directions of Figure 7d Feldspar has two directions of
cleavage. They are not at 90° to each cleavage.
other.

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atomic bonds between the layers of atoms in mica. Galena and halite
break in cubes because they have cleavage in three directions, all at right
angles to one another. Feldspar has cleavage in two directions, at nearly
right angles. However, it breaks irregularly in other directions. Some
minerals, such as quartz, have no cleavage. Quartz breaks into irregular Geo Words
shapes. It often shows a curved surface called conchoidal fracture. conchoidal fracture:
a type of mineral
Crystal Shape fracture that gives
a smoothly curved
When minerals grow in surface.
unconfined spaces, they
usually have a regular
crystal shape. Quartz
crystals grow as six-sided
(hexagonal) columns with
pointed tops. (See Figure 8.)
Garnets often grow in
regular twelve-sided
shapes. These shapes are Figure 8 Quartz crystals grow in hexagonal
called dodecahedra. (See columns.
Figure 9.)
Color
Color is usually the first
thing you notice about
a mineral. However, it is
the least reliable property
in identifying a mineral.
Many minerals have
different colors depending
on what impurities are
present. Corundum (Al2O3)
Figure 9 Garnets often grow in dodecahedral
is sometimes tinted red by shapes.
small amounts of chromium.
These crystals are known
as rubies. A sapphire is the
same mineral tinted blue
by small amounts of titanium. Quartz is usually transparent. However,
it can be many other colors, depending on what impurities are present.
Some minerals tarnish or change color when their surfaces are exposed
to air. Many minerals have the same color as others. Many prospectors in
the gold rush days were fooled by pyrite. Pyrite is known as fool’s gold.
It has a metallic luster and a color similar to gold. However, it has a lower
specific gravity than gold. It is also brittle (gold is malleable), and leaves a
black streak on a white porcelain tile (gold has a gold-colored streak).

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Other Properties
Some minerals have special properties. These make them easy to identify.
They also make these minerals useful for specific purposes.
• Metals have properties that make them useful in machinery. Most metals
are malleable. This means that under pressure they can be changed in
shape without breaking. Also, metals are very useful in the production
and distribution of power. Metals tend to be good conductors of
electricity. Most are also ductile. This means that they can be stretched
into wire.
• Some minerals have a chemical reaction to acids. Carbonate minerals are
Checking Up an example. They fizz when a drop of weak hydrochloric acid is applied.
1. What is a mineral? Acid breaks down the chemical bonds in the carbonate. The fizz is CO2
2. Why do different
gas being released. Acid is a good test to identify the calcium carbonate
minerals have mineral calcite.
different • A few minerals are radioactive. The atoms of radioactive materials are
properties? not stable. They release subatomic particles and radiation as they decay.
3. Is color a good Uranium minerals are radioactive. They can be detected with a Geiger
identifying property counter. (This an instrument that detects radiation.)
of a mineral? Why
or why not? • Some minerals are magnetic. Magnetite is an important ore of iron.
It is magnetic.
4. What is the
difference between • Some minerals are fluorescent. They change ultraviolet light to
cleavage and other wavelengths. Fluorite is one example. A few minerals are
crystal shape of a phosphorescent. They store light energy. Then they slowly release it.
mineral?

Think About It Again

At the beginning of this section, you were asked the following:
• What are some ways to identify birds?
Record your ideas about this question now. Think about the many different
ways to describe minerals. Describe all the properties you can think of that
can be used to identify birds.

Reflecting on the Section and the Challenge

You saw that there are many different ways to describe minerals. Some
properties are more useful than other properties when describing and
comparing minerals. Being able to describe minerals accurately helped to
identify them. You also read about how atoms are arranged in mineral crystals,
and how the geometry of the arrangement affects the physical properties of the
mineral. You must be able to identify minerals and understand their properties
to make a useful analysis of the rocks in your local community, state, and
region. Knowing your local rocks and how they formed will help you to develop
your museum exhibit on the geology of your region.

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Understanding and Applying

1. Make a concept map that demonstrates your understanding of minerals. Include the
following terms: mineral, element, rock, ore, and compound.
2. A student claims that diamond is the hardest mineral because carbon, from which
diamond is made, is a very hard element. Use what you have learned about minerals
to provide a different explanation as to why diamond is the hardest mineral.
3. Correct the following misconception: “Quartz is always clear or transparent.”
4. Give at least one advantage and one disadvantage to using a native element to produce
a product (for example, a beverage container).
5. Preparing for the Chapter Challenge
Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Being able to distinguish among different
kinds of minerals is a useful skill. Be sure that you are able to recognize some of the
important characteristics of the minerals you examined. When identifying minerals,
think about the environments in which they formed as well. Also think about the role
of observing minerals in your museum exhibit. You might want to consider having a
hands-on section of your exhibit in which visitors to the museum observe the properties
of common minerals and then link these properties with how the minerals were formed
by Earth processes. You could also include an interactive map in your exhibit that
shows the location of the minerals in your region. Visit the EarthComm Web site
at [Link] for resources on where to locate
minerals in your region.

Inquiring Further
1. Mineral groups
Investigate the major mineral
groups and the environments in
which they form.
2. Mineral makeup of Earth
Investigate the proportions of
various materials in the crust of
Earth. Which minerals are most
common? Which elements make
up most of the minerals?
3. Metallic and nonmetallic resources
from minerals
Which minerals are the source of
metals like iron, silver, lead, and
copper? What are some nonmetallic
resources? Which minerals are the
sources of these resources?

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