CHEMISTRY

By
GYAN GUPTA
For{XI , XIIth& [Link].}Mob- 9839423940
th

________________________________________________________________________________________

Solution- A homogenous mixture whose composition can be varied within certain limits is termed as true
solution.
Every solution consists of a solvent and one or more solutes. In general the component having the same
physical state as the solution is called solvent and the other components are called solutes.
e.g. when sugar and water are mixed to form a solution , water is solvent and sugar is solute.
Terms used to express concentration of the solution-

1- In percentage-
i) Mass percentage- it is defined as the mass of the component per 100g of the solution. If solution contain
two component A and B, then-

5%(w/w) NaCl solution means in 100g of solution 5g NaCl is present.

ii) Weight /volume percentage- it is the amount of solute in grams present in 100 ml of solution.
5% (w/v) NaCl solution means in 100ml of solution 5g NaCl is present.

iii) Volume percentage- it is defined as the volume of the component per 100ml of the solution. If solution
contain two component A and B, then-

5%(v/v) alcohol solution means in 100ml of solution 5ml alcohol is present.

2- Strength in gram per liter- It is the weight of solute in grams present in 1liter of the solution.
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3- Molarity- It is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 liter of the solution.

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4- Normality- It is the number of gram equivalents of solute dissolved in 1 liter of the solution

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 CHEMISTRY
By
GYAN GUPTA
For{XI , XIIth& [Link].}Mob- 9839423940
th

________________________________________________________________________________________

5- Molality- It is the number of moles of solute present in 1 Kg of the solvent.

( )

( )

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6- Mole Fraction- it is the ratio of the number of moles of one component of the solution (solute or solvent)
to the total moles of the solution.

And,
Each method of expressing concentration of the solutions has its own merits and demerits. Mass %, ppm,
mole fraction and molality are independent of temperature, whereas molarity is a function of temperature.
This is because volume depends on temperature and the mass does not

Colligative properties- Those properties of the solution which depends upon number of solute particles
present in the solution not on the nature of the solute particles are called colligative properties.
Examples- i) Osmotic pressure
ii) Relative lowering in vapour pressure
iii) Elevation in boiling point
iv) Depression in freezing point

Osmosis- When a solution is separated by its pure solvent by a semi-permeable membrane (SPM), solvent
molecule starts moving towards solution side. This process is known as osmosis.
“The spontaneous flow of solvent molecule through semi-permeable membrane from a region of lower
concentration to region of higher concentration is called osmosis.”

Difference between Diffusion and Osmosis

S.N Diffusion Osmosis
1 Semi permeable membrane is not required. Semi permeable membrane is required.
2 Solvent molecule move from region of higher Solvent molecule move from region of lower
concentration to lower concentration. concentration to region of higher concentration.
3 Both solute and solvent molecules can move. Only solvent molecules can move.
4 It is common in gases as well as in liquid It is restricted to solution only.
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 CHEMISTRY
By
GYAN GUPTA
For{XI , XIIth& [Link].}Mob- 9839423940
th

________________________________________________________________________________________

Osmotic Pressure- The excess pressure which must be applied on the solution to prevent osmosis i.e. the
flow of solvent molecule towards the solvent side through SPM is called Osmotic Pressure.
The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger than the osmotic pressure is applied to the
solution side. That is, now the pure solvent flows out of the solution through the semi permeable membrane.
This phenomenon is called Reverse osmosis.

Osmotic pressure is a colligative property as it depends on the number of solute molecules and not on their
identity.
For dilute solutions, it has been found experimentally that osmotic pressure is proportional to the molarity,
C of the solution at a given temperature T.

If n moles of solute is present in V liter of solution,

( )

R=0.0821 LatmK-1mol-1 = 0.083 L bar K-1 mol-1

Osmotic pressure method is widely used to determine molar masses of proteins, polymers and other
macromolecule. The osmotic pressure method has the advantage over other methods as pressure
measurement is around the room temperature and the molarity of the solution is used instead of molality. As
compared to other colligative properties, its magnitude is large even for very dilute solutions. The technique
of osmotic pressure for determination of molar mass of solutes is particularly useful for biomolecules as
they are generally not stable at higher temperatures and polymers have poor solubility.

Isotonic Solution- Solutions having same molar concentration will have the same osmotic pressure. Pair of
solution with the same osmotic pressure do not involve any flow of solvent molecules through SPM and are
called isotonic solutions.
The osmotic pressure associated with the fluid inside the blood cell is equivalent to that of 0.9% (mass/
volume) sodium chloride solution, called normal saline solution and it is safe to inject intravenously. On the
other hand, if we place the cells in a solution containing more than 0.9% (mass/volume) sodium chloride,
water will flow out of the cells and they would shrink. Such a solution is called hypertonic. If the salt
concentration is less than 0.9% (mass/volume), the solution is said to be hypotonic. In this case, water will
flow into the cells if placed in this solution and they would swell.

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 CHEMISTRY
By
GYAN GUPTA
For{XI , XIIth& [Link].}Mob- 9839423940
th

________________________________________________________________________________________

Henry’s law (Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid)

The law states that at a constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the
pressure of the gas.
The most commonly used form of Henry‟s law states that “the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p)
is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the solution” and is expressed as
p = KH x
KH is the Henry‟s law constant
Higher the value of KH at a given pressure, the lower is the solubility of the gas in the liquid.

Henry‟s law finds several applications in industry and explains some biological phenomena.
 To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the bottle is sealed under high
pressure.
 Scuba divers must cope with high concentrations of dissolved gases while breathing air at high
pressure underwater. Increased pressure increases the solubility of atmospheric gases in blood. When
the divers come towards surface, the pressure gradually decreases. This releases the dissolved gases
and leads to the formation of bubbles of nitrogen in the blood. This blocks capillaries and creates a
medical condition known as bends, which are painful and dangerous to life.
To avoid bends, as well as, the toxic effects of high concentrations of nitrogen in the blood, the tanks
used by scuba divers are filled with air diluted with helium.
 At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground level. Low blood
oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to think clearly, symptoms of a condition
known as anoxia.
 The solubility of gases increases with decrease of temperature. It is due to this reason that aquatic
species are more comfortable in cold waters rather than in warm waters.

Vapor pressure-
When a liquid is taken in a closed vessel, the more energetic molecules near the surface change into vapors.
The Vapor molecules occupy the available space over the liquid surface and tend to condense. Thus the
process of evaporation and condensation take place simultaneously. With the passage of time rate of
evaporation decreases and rate of condensation increases and a stage is obtained in which rate of
evaporation become equal t rate of condensation. This stage is called equilibrium.
„The pressure exerted by the vapors at equilibrium with a liquid at a given temperature, is called the
vapor pressure.‟
The vapor pressure depends upon following factors-
i) Nature of liquid- each liquid has a characteristic VP because each liquid has different magnitude
of intermolecular forces.
ii) Temperature- the VP of the liquid increases with increase in temperature.
Vapour pressure of solution-

When a non-volatile solute is added into a solvent then the

vapor pressure of the solvent is lowered. The vapor pressure is
the escaping tendency of solvent molecules. When a non-
volatile solute is added into the solvent then some of the surface
area is also occupied by the solute particles. As a result lesser
number of solvent molecules will escape as compared to that in
pure solvent. 4
 CHEMISTRY
By
GYAN GUPTA
For{XI , XIIth& [Link].}Mob- 9839423940
th

________________________________________________________________________________________

Raoult’s Law-
a) For liquid-liquid solution-
“In a binary solution of two volatile liquids the vapor pressure due to one component is equal to the
product of vapor pressure of that component in its pure state and its mole fraction.”
Let in a binary solution of two volatile liquids A and B their mole fractions are xA and xB. If
pA and pB be the VP of these two component in solutions-

b) For liquid containing non-volatile solute –

When the solute is non-volatile then only the solvent molecules are present in the vapor phase.
Therefore the vapor pressure of the solution will be the vapor pressure due to solvent only.
If PA is the vapor pressure of solvent in the solution and xA is the mole fraction then vp of the
solution (p) -

Ideal and non-ideal solutions-

Ideal solutions- the solutions which follow Raoults law exactly over the
entire range of concentration are called ideal solutions.

For ideal solutions ΔHmix = 0 i.e. there should be no evolution or

absorption of heat.
ΔVmix = 0 i.e. total volume of the solution should be equal to the
sum of the volumes of components.
For ideal solutions A……B interaction is similar to the A…..A or B…..B
interactions.
e.g. 1) n-heptane and n-hexane.
2) benzene and toluene
3) chloro-benzene and bromo benzene.
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 CHEMISTRY
By
GYAN GUPTA
For{XI , XIIth& [Link].}Mob- 9839423940
th

________________________________________________________________________________________

Non-ideal solution- - the solutions which do not follow Raoults law over the entire range of concentration
are called ideal solutions.

For ideal solutions ΔHmix ≠ 0

For ideal solutions ΔVmix ≠ 0
For ideal solutions A……B interaction is different from the A…..A and B…..B interactions.
Non-ideal solution show positive and negative deviation from the ideal behavior.
Non-ideal solutions showing positive deviation-
For such solutions the vp of the solution is more than the value expected by the Raoult‟s law.

ΔHmix >0
ΔVmix > 0
A……B interaction is lesser than the A…..A and B…..B interactions.
Example-
1) Ethyl alcohol and water
2) Benzene and acetone
3) Carbon tetra chloride and chloroform

Non-ideal solutions showing negative deviation-

For such solutions the vp of the solution is less than the value expected by the Raoult‟s law.

ΔHmix <0
ΔVmix < 0
A…B interaction is more than the A…..A and B…..B interactions.
Examples-
1) Acetone and chloroform
2) Water and nitric acid
3) Acetone and aniline

Azeotropes- Azeotropes are binary mixtures having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase and
boil at a constant temperature. In such cases, it is not possible to separate the components by fractional
distillation.
There are two types of azeotropes called minimum boiling azeotrope and maximum boiling azeotrope.
The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoult‟s law form minimum boiling azeotrope at
a specific composition For example, ethanol-water mixture (95% ethanol).
The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult‟s law form maximum boiling azeotrope at a
specific composition e.g 68% nitric acid.
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 CHEMISTRY
By
GYAN GUPTA
For{XI , XIIth& [Link].}Mob- 9839423940
th

________________________________________________________________________________________

Elevation in boiling point-

The temperature at which vp of the liquid become equal to atmospheric pressure is called boiling point of
the liquid.
When a non-volatile solute is added into pure solvent then the vp of the solvent decreases thus BP
increases this increase in BP is called elevation in boiling point.

Elevation in boiling point is directly proportional to the

molal concentration of the solute thus it is a colligative property.

The elevation in boiling point of the solvent on adding one mole

of non-volatile solute into 1000 g pure solvent is called molal
elevation constant.

Depression in freezing point

The freezing point is the temperature at which the solid and the liquid
state of the substance have the same vapor pressure.
When a non-volatile solute is added into pure solvent then the freezing
point of the solvent decreases this decrease in freezing point is called
depression in boiling point.

Depression in freezing point is directly proportional to the

molal concentration of the solute thus it is a colligative property.

The depression in freezing point of the solvent on adding one mole

of non-volatile solute into 1000 g pure solvent is called molal
depression constant.

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 CHEMISTRY
By
GYAN GUPTA
For{XI , XIIth& [Link].}Mob- 9839423940
th

________________________________________________________________________________________

Abnormal molar mass and Vant Hoff factor

Ionic compounds when dissolved in water dissociate into cations and anions. When there is dissociation of
solute into ions, the experimentally determined molar mass is always lower than the true value.
If solute undergoes dissociation or association then the molar mass calculated on the basis of
colligative properties method is different form the expected value. Such a molar mass that is either lower or
higher than the expected or normal value is called as abnormal molar mass.
Van‟t Hoff introduced a factor i, known as the Van‟t Hoff factor, to account for the extent of dissociation or
association. This factor i is defined as:

Abnormal molar mass is the experimentally determined molar mass and calculated colligative properties are
obtained by assuming that the non-volatile solute is neither associated nor dissociated.
In case of association, value of i is less than unity while for dissociation it is greater than unity.

Osmotic pressure

Relative lowering in VP

Elevation in BP

Depression in FP

Degree of dissociation –

Degree of association –

In case of association, value of i is less than unity while for dissociation it is greater than unity.