RAIL TRANSPORT RAILS

CHAPTER IV

RAILS

IV - 1) HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF THE RAIL

Definition:

The rail is the element that best characterizes rail transport, by virtue that the
The most important technical characteristic of the railway is the wheel-rail contact.

Evolution based on requirements:

The evolution of the rails over time as a consequence of the increase in

the requirements (increase of the loads per axle from 3 t/axle in the early times to
30 t/axis currently and a significant increase in commercial speeds of 50
Km/h to 300 Km/h currently) has forced the study and improvement of them.
The evolution shows the increase in the following aspects:
Increase of vertical inertia
Increase in weight per linear meter
Improvement of quality in chemical composition

IV - 2 ) ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS

The rails must fulfill the functions described below:

1) Absorb and resist the stresses received from the rolling material and
transmit them to the other elements that make up the structure of the roadway:
1.1) Vertical efforts: weight of the vehicles
1.2) Cross efforts: uncompensated centrifugal force and components
transversal forces of the loop motion.
1.3) Longitudinal stresses: thermal origin and braking stresses and
acceleration
Unidirectional guidance of vehicle wheels.
2) Conduct the electric current for signaling and eventually the
return currents of electric traction.

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IV - 3) FORM (TRANSVERSE SECTION)

It is conditioned by the interaction with the wheels of the rolling stock and by the
structural and harmonic integration that it must have with the rest of the elements that
they constitute the structure of the road.
The first rails were 'double T' profile, symmetrical with two heads. Design that
it responded to the resistant function of the rail and to the purpose of double use and that in
the practice did not work out.
In 1836, the flat rail appeared, designed by the English engineer Charles.
Vignole. This design, which persists today, allows for easy attachment to the
sleepers and consists of three parts:
Head
Soul
Skate

Another type of profile is the throat rail, primarily used on installed tracks.
in pavements, such as trams, ports, and maneuvering beaches.

IV–3.1) THE RAIL PROFILE

The advances and improvements of the 'Vignole' flat skate profile are fundamentally due to
to photoelastic studies and finite element analysis applied to stresses
that are produced on the rail.

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Through photoelasticity, the isochromatic curves of any profile are studied.

through a beam of polarized light, these curves are proportional to the stresses
produced in the rail subjected to a certain load state. This allows for the
sizing of the different parts of the rail profile and the alignment radii
those parts.
In the following figures, the corresponding photoelastic projections are represented.
three profiles subjected to loads with different eccentricities and with radii of
different arrangements (head–soul and soul–skate).

Photoelastic projections of three different profiles subjected to loads with varying eccentricity

As a consequence of these studies, the mass distribution of the

parts
Head from 35% to 40%
Soul from 27% to 22%
Skate from 38% to 40%

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IV–3.2) PARTS OF THE RAIL

Head:
It is the part of the rail intended to come into contact with the wheels of the rolling stock.
For this reason, the shape of the tread surface must ensure good
distribution of the applied stresses.
The wheel-rail contact must never be a point contact, but a surface.
elliptical (Hertz's theory) on the order of 1 cm2.
The dimensions of the head must be such that:
Allow the distribution of the loads transmitted by the wheel-rail contact.
Transmit efforts to the soul through appropriate tuning rays.
It must have a lateral wear margin on curves and a wear margin.
vertical due to friction.
Through experience and the study of load distribution (photoelasticity) it is possible to
to state that the dimensions of the head are on the order of:
60 to 70 mm for the width and 50 mm in height.
Larger widths can cause mass imbalance, the height of 50 mm
provides a mass balance with the skate, reducing the residual stresses of the
cooling after rolling in the manufacturing process.
The pumping radius is the radius of curvature of the head. It has been shown that for
achieve a better distribution of surface tensions, the most suitable pumping radius
It should be 300 mm, as it is the one that most closely matches the more stable wear profile.
The inclination of the lateral sides of the head must be such that in straight alignments
there is no contact between them and the wheel rim, but in curved alignments of
reduced radio produces this contact, so to reduce the contact pressure and
therefore the lateral wear, the lateral faces are given an inclination of 1/20, which
it also allows for increasing the width of the lower sides of the head, favoring
the coupling of the eclipses. The inclination of the lower faces is between 1/3
And 1/4, values lower than these hinder the agreement with the soul.

Sledge:
It is characterized by the width, shape, and thickness of the wings. The width (b) conditions the
rigidity of the rail in the horizontal plane and its resistance to tipping. The wider it is
less pressure transmits to the sleeper but has the disadvantage of limiting the
flexibility for the installation of the rail on curves.
It is recommended that the ratio be maintained: 1.1 b h 1,2 b
Let b be the width of the skate and h the height of the rail.
The thickness and shape of the wings is influenced by the balance of masses that must
to exist between head, soul, and skate and through the rolling process.
While a double inclination on the upper face of the skate produces an economy of
material, many manufacturers prefer a single slope to facilitate laminating and
reduce manufacturing costs this way.

Alma:
It must transmit the efforts from the head to the skate, the thickness must be sufficient
to withstand the shear forces and the stresses around the holes of the
Eclisas. It is recommended that the thickness be e 15 mm.
The agreements between the soul with the head and the skate are areas of concentration.
of tensions, the recommended tuning radii to reduce these tensions
they vary from 15mm to 35mm.

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The following figures illustrate different types of profiles used by some of

the most important railway administrations worldwide.

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UIC Profiles

IV - 4) THE STEEL OF THE RAILS

The first rails were made of cast iron, they were very fragile. Later on
it switched to rolled iron but it was not possible to avoid breaks due to brittleness. Starting from
In 1883, steel rails began to be constructed, which were initially ductile steels.
(soft) arising issues of premature wear, which led to the manufacturing

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of harder steels. Currently, it has been possible to reconcile hard rails and those that are less
fragility.

Manufacturing conditions that must be met by the steel of the rails:

The steel of the rails must meet a set of contradictory conditions.

which forces us to seek compromise (intermediate) solutions:

It must have weak rolling resistance: smooth and rigid rails.

It must have maximum grip: rough rails.
They must lack fragility: soft rails.
They must have wear resistance: hard rails.
They must have flexibility: flexible rails.
They must have solderability.

Crystalline structure of rail steel:

The different types of steels are classified by their chemical composition and by their
crystal structure, which depends on the cooling process and is based on the
solubility of carbon in iron, as illustrated in the following figure.

There are two allotropes of pure iron: y .

stable in cold, crystallizes in the body-centered cubic system.
Stable above 910 ºC, it crystallizes in the face-centered cubic system.

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In the state , the arrangement of atoms is more compact than in the state reason
through which carbon atoms are inserted into the crystalline structure of iron
easily in hot than in cold.
By observing the solubility diagram, it is evident that a series of
transformations by diffusion of carbon atoms within the structure of
iron.
The gradual cooling leads to the formation of pearlite (whose composition in
carbon is up to 0.9%) surrounded by sheets of ferrite (pure iron), is formed by
below 720ºC. The pearlitic structure is harder if the sheets are thinner
and are closer. If the cooling rate increases (100ºC/sec.) it does not
it does not produce diffusion, but rather a reordering of the iron atoms and
they maintain the carbon atoms in solid solution without inserting into the structure of the
iron, then the steel is "tempered" and this forms a structure called martensite,
it is a very hard and very fragile structure, it can even lead to the appearance of
cracks.
For this reason, the rail steel must have a pearlite type crystalline structure and
orbit. These structures, which are not very hard, are very tough and therefore suitable
to withstand blows, shocks, and wear.
The sorbite structure is obtained through a heat treatment that modifies its
primitive microstructure. It is achieved by heating above the
austenitizing temperature (720 ºC) and a gradual cooling of the surface of
rolling.

Chemical composition of rail steels:

Another way to increase the strength of steels is to modify their composition.

chemistry.
Each railway administration sets its own specific tolerances for admission
different types of rails, whose tolerances are within the limits that are
indicated in the following table.

Components of steel Types of steel

(%) Normal steel Naturally hard steel
C 0.37–0.55 0.60–0.80
Mn 0.70–1.20 0.80–1.30
Yes 0.35 0.10–0.50
P 0.05 0.03
Yes 0.05 0.03

Qualitative effects of the different components of steel:

1) Carbon increases hardness, wear resistance, and strength.

traction, but at the cost of a corresponding increase in fragility.
Manganese increases hardness, wear resistance, and resistance to
traction and tenacity but hinders weldability.
Silicon increases hardness, wear resistance, and also facilitates the
removal of gases in the steel manufacturing process.
4) Sulfur and phosphorus make steel brittle, but it is impossible to eliminate them.
total of these impurities, so it is only possible to limit the content of the
the same in small percentages.

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5) Chromium increases hardness, wear resistance, and toughness but gives

place for the formation of martensite which increases brittleness.
6) Other components such as vanadium, molybdenum, and niobium refine the
pearlite grain and therefore they are used to obtain high-strength steels
resistance.

Physical properties of steel for rails:

The steels used for rails are in the range of carbon contents.
between 0.3% and 0.9%, of structure of the type pearlite–ferrite.

Tensile strength: for common steels it ranges from 680 to 850 N/mm2but to the
hard steels are above 900 N/mm2For curves with reduced radii in lines with
important traffics, special steel rails with tensile strength are used
from 1000 to 1300 N/mm2The elongations at rupture must be 14% for steels
common and 10% for hard steels.
Specific weight: 7.85 T/m3.
Thermal expansion coefficient: 1.05 x 10-51/°C
Elasticity modulus: E = 2.1 x 106kg/cm2
Dureza Brinell: 210 a 270ºBr (para aceros comunes) y 370ºBr (para aceros especiales).

IV - 5) MANUFACTURING OF THE RAILS

The manufacturing process of the rails consists of three phases:

1) Steel manufacturing.

2) Rail manufacturing (giving the steel geometric characteristics and shape)

definitive).

3) Finishing operation.

Steel manufacturing:

There are five manufacturing procedures: Thomas

Bessemer
Martin-Siemens
Electric
Linz-Donawitz (oxygen blowing)

The five procedures are based on obtaining the required steel through
blast furnace fusion of iron ore ingots and scrap, the impurities form the
slag that floats in the molten metal due to difference in specific weight.
The first two procedures mentioned are very old and are rarely used.
currently.
The process of manufacturing electrical steel is achieved by melting steel through an arc.
electric, produced by two electrodes inserted into the mass of the metal
melted. It is a very costly process and is not used for large volumes, not
nevertheless allows to obtain a very good quality steel.

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In the oxygen blowing manufacturing process, add to the procedure.

Martín-Siemens, the fact that allows a flow of oxygen to pass through the molten metal,
achieving that oxygen combines with the impurities and accelerates the process.
The steel comes out of the furnace in a liquid state (pig iron) at about 3,000ºC, from there it passes to a
converter to achieve vacuum degassing (primarily to reduce the
hydrogen content) thus achieving a higher degree of cleanliness (removal of the
non-metallic inclusions), homogenization of the mass and an adjustment of the composition
chemistry. Solid steel can be produced in the form of ingots or blooms of
the colada continues.
In the case of the ingots, the molten steel from the converter is poured into
truncated conical molds that, after cooling and solidifying, are demolded and removed
ingots. The other process is continuous casting, where the liquid steel
coming from the converter is placed in square section molds of 20 cm on each side
and very long, those that are cut once solidified, but still red to be cooled and
to form the so-called 'blooms' or 'tochos'.

Rail manufacturing:

Once the steel has been obtained in solid form by one procedure or another (whether in
in the form of ingots or blooms), It is reheated in a reheating furnace and
there passes a rolling mill train, formed by three stands (roughing stand, stand
intermediate or profiling and finishing box) where rollers are passed over it to
by extruding it and giving it the final shape. After passing through the finishing box, the rail
it is cut with a circular saw into lengths that can vary from 12 to 90 meters, to
customer order. Next, the hot rail marking is carried out by
an automatic computer-controlled punch press, the marking is done on the
soul of the rail, where the number of the cast is indicated, quality sign of the steel, year of
manufacturing, manufacturer identification, etc.
Then it undergoes a controlled cooling process, after which it goes through a
horizontal and vertical axis roller straightening machine which act in a way
synchronized, a wave meter is used to determine horizontal and vertical flatness
of the rail. Next, the straightening of the ends is carried out in both directions.
horizontal and vertical through hydraulic presses that are controlled
automatically by laser sensors.
An ultrasonic examination ensures the internal quality of the product. Likewise,
the external quality is verified using a surface defect control machine,
by induced currents.
Then, using cold cutting saws, the rails are cut at the ends to give them
the exact length and if requested by the customer, the holes are drilled for
the bolts of the eclises according to the specified diameter and number.
They finally move to the final inspection beds for dimension control.
geometric and are stored for shipment.
The length of the rail depends on the factory and the means of transportation available.
the maximum length that has been built is 90 m, but if it needs to be moved by boat, that
It's how it arrives in Uruguay, 60 m is too long, so they are brought in 18 or 25 m.
In the past, they were manufactured in shorter lengths, varying from 7, 10, or 12 m.
In the case of installing a track with continuously welded rail, those short rails are welded.
previously in a workshop to form a long bar of about 140 meters in length, then
these bars are transferred to the place where they are installed on the track and are joined together by
aluminothermic welding.

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The following is a diagram of the manufacturing processes that can occur.

the rails, from steel production to the finished final product.

Diagram of the rail manufacturing processes

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Outline of the steel and rail manufacturing process:

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Quality control – Most frequent tests:

To ensure the quality of the rails, a series of tests must be conducted, which
They are generally carried out by mutual agreement between manufacturers and the
railway administrations.
The tests that are usually done to them are

Mechanical tests:

Tensile test (a cast series).

Shock test (a series of ingots).

Brinell hardness test (one series per casting).

Chemical composition and metallographic tests:

Chemical analysis (one series per batch).

Micrographic essay: study with electron microscope (from 100 to 200 magnifications) of
the texture, which must be of homogeneous, fine, uniform grain, without cracks,
neither coqueras nor any type of segregation (one series per ingot).
In the microscope photographs presented below, it can be observed the
metalurgical microstructure of a common steel (of pearlite-ferrite structure), whose
the minimum tensile strength is on the order of 700 N/mm2and a naturally occurring steel
hard, with high carbon content (of totally pearlitic structure), whose resistance
the minimum traction is about 900 N/mm2.

Common steel (Rtrace700N/mm

2
) Naturally hard steel
( Rtrac 900N/mm
2
Pearlitic-ferritic structure )
The dark phase is perlite surrounded by Totally perlitic structure
a lighter ferrite net.

Macroscopic essay: the Baumann procedure is used, which consists of subjecting a

rail sheet to the action of a silver paper or silver citrate, impregnated with acid
sulfuric, intended to detect the presence of sulfur or phosphorus, in case any exists
of these impurities, the silver salt is blackened revealing its presence. In
In any case, it is not easy to detect their presence, which is why a game is used
reference and comparison type photographs.
Below are some examples of Baumann type images.

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Perfect macrographic image Segregation at points throughout the section

acceptable (acceptable)

Dendritic structure Internal dotted that corresponds to

(not acceptable) small holes (not acceptable)

Geometric tolerances:

The tolerances in the longitudinal and transverse dimensions are indicated in the figure.
attached.

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On the other hand, to verify compliance regarding the form and dimensions of
the cross-section of the rail, a set of gauges is used as seen in the
following figures.

Calipers used for verifying the shape and dimensions of the rails

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IV - 6 ) RAIL DEFECTS

Defects attributable to the manufacturing process:

Despite the rigorous controls in the manufacturing process as well as the tests of
reception, inevitably a certain number of tracks must be taken out of service in
premature form, due to cracks, breaks and damages. Of these defects, 20% to 25% are
of metallurgical character, that is to say due to the manufacturing process, while from a
75% to 80% are attributable to external causes.
The defects that rails may have due to the manufacturing process are
anomalies, the most important are the following:

Rechupe: There are two types. Primary: caused by insufficient cropping of

ingot at the exit of the casting, the steel is in a liquid state and cools down, potentially giving
place a vertical crack at the end of the rail.
Secondary: produced by excessive speed in casting and demolding, it produces
cavities or cracks that do not surface on the new rails.

Central segregation: it is due to a lack of care in the washing that leaves impurities.
(sulfur or phosphorus), and it is fundamentally verified in the soul.

Reverse segregation: it occurs as a result of premature laminating that

tiene lugar antes de solidificarse, se caracteriza por la formación de una zona central
decarburized surrounded by a carburized ring and with impurities, gives rise to the formation
of longitudinal cracks.

Solid inclusions: It is also due to premature rolling and is characterized by the

presence of slag particles in the steel mass during the process of
deoxidation.

Gas inclusions: they are gas bubbles that remain inside the ingot and
later they translate into cracks.

Transverse cracks: Their origin is unclear, but in some cases they are caused by
tensions produced during cooling and in other cases to the presence of
hydrogen that leads to what is referred to as an 'oval spot' on the head of the rail, gives
place for fatigue fractures under the action of service loads.

Rolling defects: They can be, edge waviness of the slab due to lack of
material; burrs on the skate and: folds due to excess material.

Defects due to traffic

The defects caused by traffic are due to fatigue from repetition of the
loads, very high axle loads, high speeds, the layout also influences
(reduced radius curves that increase wear, slopes that ).
Among the most common defects are
Skid marks from skating or braking: due to the strong friction they raise the
rail temperature at the surface, plasticizing the running surface, resulting in
to the formation of scales and causing the top layer to peel off.

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Bending and cracks at the ends of the rails with permanent deformations due to
los golpes producidos por las ruedas al pasar por las juntas.
Radial cracks in the holes of the bolts of the flanges.
Transverse cracks in the rail head caused by 'oval stain' which as already
it is due to a very rapid cooling process in the manufacturing of the rail, it
It can be avoided if the manufacturing process has controlled cooling.

The wear of the rail occurs due to a loss of mass in the cross-section.
produced by the abrasion caused by the passage of vehicles. Within the
different types of wear are found: lateral wear of the outer rail in curves of
reduced radio, as well as severe plastic deformation in the inner rail, this type of
wear is measured with profilometers.
Wavy wear; It is, as its name indicates, a wear that is
characterized by longitudinal deformations on the rolling surface of different
wavelength: the short one, with wavelengths of 40 to 80 mm and an amplitude of 0.4
mm and the length with wavelengths from 500 to 2000 mm and amplitudes on the order of
5mm.

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Short wave wear is common in metro lines and produces significant

rolling resistance and therefore a greater energy consumption and causes noise when
passage of vehicles. Long undulating wear has less impact on
circulation except in high-speed trains. The causes of these defects are not yet
are clearly established

Lateral wear Severe plastic deformation

Defects due to environmental conditions

The defects attributable to the environment; such as corrosion produced in areas
wet areas (tunnels or poorly drained areas); as well as areas of high salinity,
as is the case with the Rocha Line, where it can be observed that the rails have been
corroded by high salinity. Temperature variations also influence,
During periods of intense cold, the fragility of the rails increases, which can lead to breakages.
sudden changes due to the passage of trains (the running surface experiences an increase in
temperature, while the rest of the rail section is cold which produces variation of
tensions caused by the break.

Premature removal of the rails

Many times the rails must be removed prematurely (before their
service life), this is due to the localization of defects, such as the statements
previously. In addition to these cases, the criteria followed to allow a rail
continue in service depends on the wear profile (inclined, lateral and/or
vertical) complies with certain maximum tolerances defined according to the regulations
from each administration. In that sense, the Latin American Association of Railways
establishes in its Standard 5-026 the maximum wear criteria allowed for each type of rail.
according to their weight, they are indicated in the following table.

Permitted wear according to ALAF Standard 5-026

Limit of wear or reduction
Location and Type of Wear Rail Weight (kg/m)
referring to nominal measures
Vertical wear of the mushroom 25 to 35.5 8 mm
(max) 36.7 a 39.8 10 mm
42.16 to 50 12 mm
60 14 mm
Lateral wear of the fungus (max) 25 to 35.5 8 mm
measured at 14 mm. from the surface 36.7 to 39.8 10 mm
of rolling. 42.16 to 50 12 mm
60 14 mm
When there is vertical wear and 25 to 35.5 12 mm
lateral of the fungus, the sum of 36.7 to 39.8 15 mm
both cannot be greater than: 42.16 to 50 18 mm
60 21 mm
Reduction and/or wear of the core 25 to 35.5 20%
and the skate 36.7 to 39.8 22 %
42.16 to 50 26%
60 30%

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The maximum inclination of lateral wear will be 30º, measured as indicated in the figure.
next

Preventive measures - defect control

Visual control:
To prevent possible defects in the rails, inspections of the track are carried out on foot.
specialized personnel position, to detect surface defects through
direct visual inspection, in some cases with the help of special liquids that
they increase the visibility of defects.
To detect internal defects that cannot be determined at first glance,
they use non-destructive control methods, such as ultrasonic or electrical control.

Ultrasonic control:
It consists of devices that send waves in the form of concentrated beams and in a
cathode ray oscilloscope records the received echoes, when they are recorded
variations of those echoes detect the defect, the position and the amplitude of it. The
ultrasonic auscultation devices can perform monitoring at speeds that
They vary from 30 to 90 Km/h, and it also has a device that paints the rail in the area of
defect allowing for its visual identification.

Electrical control:
The devices for this type of control are based on the use of two electrodes that
they slide over the rail, applying a weak voltage electrical current, such that the
Voltage variations are recorded in a microvoltmeter and reflect the
defects, a relay game causes that when the voltage variations are large,
they cause (just like in ultrasonic control) the projection of paint onto the rail.
In addition, these variations are recorded on graph paper.

Preventive measures
As preventive measures to avoid wear in a reduced radius curve, the following is used
the installation of lubricators, which are installed at the entrance and exit of the
curves. These devices are pistons that have a deposit of graphited grease and
consist of a device, such that when the wheel of the vehicles steps on it, it
activates the piston that ejects grease that lubricates the friction between the tab of the
wheel and the side face of the rail.
Other devices include the use of sandboxes in locomotives, which are activated
by the engineer to prevent slipping on very steep slopes.

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Measures of repair
To recover the original profile of the rail, a series of tasks are carried out that may include:
brushing, grinding, milling, material replenishment through welding, treatment of
joints (straightening, lubrication supplement between the eclisa and the rail), in many cases the
rails removed from main lines, after an ultrasound examination and confirmed
that do not have internal defects, are subjected to a regeneration process
reprofiling them for later use on secondary roads.

IV - 7) SELECTION OF RAIL TYPE ACCORDING TO ITS WEIGHT

When it comes to choosing the type of rail to use, the weight per unit length ends up being
the most important factor. The weight of the rail has been increasing, and today there are no more rails
lightweight, except in the northern part of Uruguay where there are still rails of 30 kg/m. The
Different types of rails according to AFE vary from 28 to 50 kg/m; the UIC standard
sets 45 to 60 kg/m; high-speed trains use 60 kg/m as a measure
standard; and the U.S. uses between 57 to 76 kg/m. The UIC notation states that a rail
UIC 50 weighs 50 kg/m and a UIC 60 weighs 60 kg/m.
The determination of the optimal rail according to its weight per linear meter (q) is a
problem that involves many variables, such as the loads per axle, the
maximum speed, traffic density, etc.. It has been addressed over time to
to represent through mathematical formulas the relationship between the weight of the rail
(Kg/m) based on the previously mentioned variables, the way to calculate it
has varied with the emergence of new equations that give an idea of how it varies
the weight with such characteristics.

Cairo Railway Congress (1968):

q 2.5P Pis the maximum static load per axis in Ton/axis

Yershov's formula:
Vmax
q Vmaxit is the maximum speed limit in Km/h
2.2

Shulga's formula:
q 31,046.T0.203 It is the annual traffic in millions of gross tons

Shajumianz formula:
1 2 2
q a(1 T4).(1 0.12.V3.P3
being
a 1.2 (for cars) and 1.3 (for locomotives)
V maximum speed of trains in km/h
P maximum load per axle in tons
T annual traffic in million gross tons

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P.s
q 0.41 R
1100.5V
being:
PR load per wheel in kg
s separation between sleepers in cm.
V maximum circulation speed in km/h.

These formulas apply for speeds less than 160 km/h.

These last two formulas, although they do not provide exactly the same values, offer
harmonious results, while the other three yield inconsistent results.

Although these formulas give an idea of the type of rail profile most suitable according to the
characteristics of the line, The final conclusions to determine the choice of type
Railway depends on the technical and economic conditions of each country.
On the other hand, globally, the various rail manufacturing steel mills tend to
normalization and standardization, as well as the different administrations
railway., which invalidates any theoretical calculation, it is normal to refer to
practical considerations, such as:
1) The weight of the rail (Kg/m) increases proportionally with the load per axle, the
speeds and traffic density.
The increase in rail weight decreases rolling resistance and costs.
of exploitation.
It is not advisable for a railway network to have more than 3 or 4 types of profiles.
different, with standardization of them being recommended.
Currently, the main railway administrations worldwide consider the
selection of the type of rail based on traffic density (T). Let's take a look at some
examples:

UIC criterion:
T 30,000 TBR/day 45 Kg/m P 50 Kg/m
30,000 T 60,000 TBR/day 50 Kg/m P 60 Kg/m
T 60,000 TBR/day P = 60 Kg/m

SNCF criteria (France):

T 14,000 TBR/day P = 45 Kg/m
14,000 T 30,000 TBR/day P = 50 Kg/m
T 30,000 TBR/day P = 60 Kg/m

AREMA Criteria (USA):

T 9 MTBR/year P = 57 Kg/m
9 T 18 MTBR/year P= 65 Kg/m
18 T 32 MTBR/year P = 70 Kg/m
T 32 MTBR/year P= 76 Kg/m

Criteria of the Russian Railways:

T 25 MTBR/year R50 (51,53 Kg/m)
25 T 50 MTBR/year R65 (64.64 Kg/m)
T 50 MTBR/year R75 (74.44 Kg/m)

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IV - 8 ) JOINTS AND ECLIPSES

The longitudinal joint of the consecutive rails is carried out using pieces.
special ties called eclipses or brackets.
The functions of the eclises are:

1) Join the rails in such a way that they behave like a continuous beam, both
in plan as in elevation.

2) Achieve a resistance to deformation of the joint that approaches that of the

rails that couple.

3) Prevent relative movements (vertical and transverse) of the ends of the

rails but allowing for their expansion.

4) It must be a simple piece (with the least number of elements possible) to the
effects of having an easy assembly and allowing for proper maintenance.

The places where this longitudinal joint is made are called track joints and
they constitute the weakest points of the path, especially from the point of view
dynamic. Indeed, the discontinuity in the stiffness of the track in that area, due to the
sudden variation of the available moment of inertia, determines a collision as it passes through the
wheels, with the consequent negative effects, namely:

1) Increases the rolling resistance of trains.

2) Produce bending deformations at the ends of the rails.

3) Produce flattening of the rail tread surface.

4) Produce crushing and breaking of the ballast.

5) It accelerates the pumping of fines from the platform, contaminating the ballast.

The supports of the sleepers near the joint weaken.

7) It favors the horizontal shifting of the rails.

The enclosed joint consists of a pair of enclosures which are two metallic elements that are
They rise on both sides of the soul at the ends of the rails and are joined by
through bolts, for this they have holes that match the holes of the
ends of the rails.

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The eclisa rests on the upper face of the skate and on the lower face of the head, never
in the soul because in that case, friction is increased and problems arise with the
rail expansion. It is important that there is light between the web and the splice plate. In the
maintenance, the rail soul is greased at the joints as there should be no
friction between the eclisa and the soul.
The joints according to the arrangement of the sleepers can be classified into:
suspended, supported, and mixed or semi-suspended.

Suspended junta Supported junta Joint committee

In the supported joint, the union of both rails is made on a sleeper, it has the
Inconvenience that with the passage of vehicles, the sleeper begins to tilt with
the weather, which causes the supports to loosen and remain poorly supported over the
ballast.
In the suspended meeting, the union of the rails materializes between two sleepers.
consecutive. This type of joints are more elastic than supported joints and do not
produce the previously mentioned 'anvil' effect. Works normally at the
flexion. Its main drawback is that, as a consequence of the great flexion to which
the rails are subjected at their ends, the fishplates are also subjected to
large bending efforts that cause wear on the eclisa at the points of
contact with the lateral faces of the rails, breakage of the bolts due to shear stress
to which they are subjected, as well as radial cracks originating from the holes of the bolts.
The semi-suspended joint is similar to the suspended one, with the difference that the sleepers
the boards are closer to each other, in certain cases with their lateral faces in
contact. These joints also suffer wear and deformation, but in comparison
with the joints suspended, they are stiffer, but they hinder the batting work.

Supported wedge (effect on the sleeper) Suspended board (above) and

semi-suspended board (below)

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The three types of joints mentioned, due to the effects of the impacts caused by the
The wheels of the vehicles are deteriorating and the bolts are loosening.
progressive, which requires maintenance work and tightening of the bolts
periodically. The tightening tension of the bolts decreases as a result
the progressive wear of the joint, this unthreading effect is delayed
notably using washers between the nut and the bracket. Another one of the
Maintenance work on the joints involves placing 'supplements' to compensate for the
wear suffered both by the eclisa and by the rail in the contact areas between
both.

According to their distribution, they are classified as: alternating joints or square joints.

Alternating meetings Ropes at right angles

The alternating arrangement prevents vehicles from practically falling on the joint.
although they produce an oscillation around their longitudinal axis that results
inconvenience for the comfort of travelers. On the other hand, in the square layout
both threads of the rail have joints in the same plane perpendicular to the axis of the track, which
which produces a pothole of this every certain distance, which accentuates the movement of
gallop of the vehicles. It cannot be said which is better than the other; the ideal would be that
there wouldn't be joints. In Uruguay, they are placed at a right angle.
The eclisas join the ends of two consecutive tracks so that their axes
longitudinal match and their position remains immobilized both in the horizontal plane
like in the vertical. It should be ensured that there is no unevenness on the upper face between one and
another. They are projected in such a way that the two placed by each joint contribute the same.
moment of inertia that the section of the rail.
To join rails from different sections, special fishplates are used, designed for
in such a way that the running surfaces of the heads of both rails are at a
same level.

Insulating joints:

In the signaling installations by blocking or centralization, the rail threads are

frequently used for conducting signal currents. The joints must
facilitate the passage of current and the necessary conductivity is achieved thanks to the
connection of both ends of the rail with the help of wire soldered to them.
The insulating joints ensure the discontinuity of the track circuit between sections.
insulating joints, in addition to the pair of eclipses and corresponding bolts, include the
additional elements:
a) Insulating coatings arranged between the eclisa and rail on both sides of it.
b) Insulating profiles made of plastic material (with the same shape and dimensions of the
cross section of the rail placed at the ends of the two rails that
they make up the isolated board.
c) Insulating cylindrical pieces made of plastic material, placed between the openings of the
the socket and the corresponding bolts.
d) Plastic washers to insulate the nuts and the heads of the bolts.

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The maintenance of the insulating joints, due to the aging of the materials
Insulation is delicate and expensive.
There are also glued insulating joints, which are easier to maintain.
made up of synthetic resins that are placed between the eclisa and the rail. Because they are very
expensive ones are only used on sections made up of continuously welded rails.
In electrified lines, conduction through the joints is ensured by
connections to the rail with copper wire with terminals inserted into sleeves of
steel that is welded to the rail and at both ends of the joint.

Expansion joints or expansion devices:

These types of elements allow for the expansion of the rails at the ends of the sections.
of continuous welded rail and are placed at the end of each welded section.
They consist of two needles that slide inside special bearings.
The function of these devices is to absorb totally or partially, the effects of the
temperature variations in the rail, maintaining the continuity of the path of
rolling.
The properties that a dilation device must fulfill are:
1) Ensure the elimination of thermal stresses in the device itself.
2) Present similar resilient characteristics to the rest of the road.
3) Allow for mechanized track tamping.
Allow circulation at high speeds.
It must be possible to use it on bridge spans.
The following are some of the most common types of AD.

Martinet type expansion device

Type F dilation apparatus

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IV - 9) WELDING OF RAILS

As already mentioned, the joints are the weakest points of the

way, which makes its partial or total elimination beneficial, as it reduces the
rolling resistance, therefore reducing the number of joints represents a
energy savings in operation and also reduce maintenance costs
(for interventions in the joints: tightening of bolts, supplement of gaskets, etc.).
To reduce the number of joints, the ends of the short bars must be welded.
thus constituting longer bars.
The weldability of a steel is defined as the ability to retain its characteristics.
initials in the affected parts, metallurgically or technically, by the operation of
welding. There are two fundamental types of steel, the steel for normal rails and
the 'Hadfield' steels (with 12 to 14% manganese and 1 to 1.4% carbon), the latter,
type of steels required to be welded under special conditions in the workshop
delicate processes and much more expensive than for the welding of normal steels.
On the other hand, the welding procedure must be such that it does not modify the structure.
of the desired steel, since if there are alterations in the welding process it could
to provoke the formation of fragile structures (of the martensitic type) in the rail areas
adjacent to the welding.
When rails are welded, it is necessary to avoid the occurrence of cracks or breaks due to stresses.
caused during the welding process.
Welding procedures are classified into two main categories:
Welding with metal addition (thermite welding).
Welding without metal addition (electric welding).

Thermite welding:

This type of welding has the advantage that it can be executed on site. It consists of placing
refractory material molds at the ends of the rails that are to be welded,
On top of the mold, a crucible is placed in which the aluminothermic portion is deposited.
(iron and aluminum oxide), then a flare is introduced that produces a strong
exothermic reaction, molten iron is poured into the mold and aluminum oxide
remains at the top in the form of slag (corundum) that is later removed with the
demolding.
The chemical reactions that occur depend on the iron oxide that is used and
respond to the following formulas:

Fe2O3+ [Link] → Al2O3+ [Link] + heat

3Fe3O4+ [Link] → 4Al2O3+ [Link] + heat

The large amount of heat produced in the exothermic reaction (the temperature of the
The melt is from 1980 °C) used to keep molten iron and corundum that are separated.
by decantation.
The aluminothermic mixture also has other components (carbon, manganese,
silica, etc.) so that the composition corresponds to the steel that makes up the rails.
The time taken for each weld is 20 to 30 minutes.

The aluminothermic welding operation consists of the following phases:

1) Establish the necessary separation (to allow for the filler material) between the
ends of both rails to be welded using a wedge or 'gauge' (from 1.5 to 2 cm).

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2) Prepare the meeting in advance (align and level the ends of the rails to
to solder.
3) Placement of refractory molds and sealing of joints with putty
refractory, the molds must be fixed to the rail using the 'mold tightening press'
4) Preheating of the ends of the rails (from 850 to 950º C), for this
They use gasoline or propane heaters.
5) Placement of the crucible on its support and positioning of it on top of the
welding joint.
6) Pouring of the aluminothermic portion into the crucible.
7) Ignition of the aluminothermic mixture, using a flare.
Colada, the "thermite charge starts the exothermic reaction and when
achieves the complete fusion of the mixture, it is automatically poured from the part
bottom of the crucible. Metal crucibles must be cleaned periodically
to avoid introducing impurities in the welding. To prevent these inconveniences
currently, the use of disposable crucibles has been introduced, made of
refractory material, its use is easier and faster since demolding is
automatic and crucible support elements are not needed.
A few minutes after finishing the laundry, the molds are removed, and the process continues to the
rebarked through cuttings.
10) Finally (once cooled and deburred) the weld is ground to give it the
rail head profile.

Phases of thermite welding

Alignment and leveling of the Placement of the molds Sealing of the molds
rails ends to be welded

Placement of the kit inside the crucible Colada Debarked with "cutting thorns"

The rail after planing Frosted Final check

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Electric welding:

Electric welds can be by resistance or by arc. In both cases, the

Welding consists of two phases: one of electrical heating and another of forging.
They are generally done in a workshop, although there are machines for electric welding.
The rails on site, the types of electric welding are described below.

1) By resistance (Flash Butt):

The ends of the two rails to be welded are brought into contact and are subjected to
to heating (due to the Joule effect), passing a current between both
low voltage electricity (5 to 8 volts) but with high intensity (35,000)
amperes). The current is transmitted to the rails through clamps that it has.
the welding machine that also provides the necessary contact pressure.
A series of sparks are produced as a result of imperfect contact between
the extreme faces of both rails, when the temperature is between 600 to 800 ºC, are
they join and separate the ends during predetermined intervals. When they
when the appropriate temperature is reached (1000 to 1500 ºC), the ends of both are joined
bars by compression, applying a longitudinal force of 40 to 50 tons, are
it produces the shortening of both rails and a weld bead is formed on the
union of both rails.
For proper welding, the ends of the bars to be welded must be
perfectly cut evenly and parallel to each other to ensure a
sufficient contact. It has the disadvantage of high energy consumption.

2) By arc (continuous crackling):

As in the previous case, heating begins by
Joule effect when passing a low voltage and high current through
of the two rails placed with their ends in contact. Next, a
high voltage and low current, making alternating movements of
approach and separation of the ends of both rails, thus forming arches
solar panels that generate a large amount of heat, leading to the melting of the metal of
the ends of the rails to be welded.
The contact of the ends to be welded is located on its own roughness, so
that the electric current concentrates at those points that get hotter
intensively and the metal reaches its melting temperature and the contact points
they jump in bursts of sparks. With each approach of the pieces, it causes new
contacts and the process repeats. After some time, the entire surface of
contact reaches the fusion and produces the welding by the contact of both pieces.
The metallic vapors released during melting prevent the access of air.
to welding and therefore there is no oxidation. This procedure consumes less
energy that the previous one and requires less preparation of the pieces to be welded.

3) By mixed heating:
This system is a combination of the two previous ones. There is a first phase of
heating in which the pieces to be welded move forward and backward several times.
Later, when the temperature is between 600 and 800 ºC, they combine and separate the
extremes during predetermined intervals (from 2 to 3 seconds), during which
The pieces heat up due to the 'Joule' effect. A certain effect is added to this process.
of crackling at the moments of contact and separation of the pieces (such as
consequence of the imperfect contact between the extreme faces of both rails,

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When sufficient temperature (1500 ºC) is reached, the phase of

chisporroteo propiamente dicho, durante la cual los extremos de las barras se
sueldan por compresión. En esta última etapa, se asegura la unión íntima de las
pieces and expels during welding the liquid parts and the oxides (whose
melting temperatures are lower than those of steel). The quality of the weld
obtained by this procedure is superior to that obtained in the described ones
previously.

4) By induction:
The ends of the rails to be welded are heated to about 1370 ºC using an inducer.
of current at a frequency of 3000 Hz. Then contact is made with the
same by compression.

The manufacturing process of long bars through electric welding can be

schematize as follows:
1) Entry of the short bars into the workshop and storage of the same.
At the time of welding, they are transported on rollers for their preparation.
previous
3) Cleaning and straightening of the ends of the bars to be welded.
Positioned on the welding machine.
5) Welding proper.
Hot rebar.
7) Cooling of the welded long bar.
8) Frosted.
Straightening
Ultrasonic inspection

Phases of electric welding in workshop

Short bar entrance Welding machine

Cooling of the welded bar Grinding machine

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