PRODUCTION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY
Kolkata-700032

Subject:
Analysis and Synthesis of Mechanisms
(2nd Year 1st Semester)
[Module-3]

Prepared by-
Dr. Kingshuk Mandal
 GEARS

Friction Wheels:
The motion and power
transmitted by gears is
kinematically equivalent to
that transmitted by friction
wheels or discs.

A gear is a toothed element

commonly used for transmitting
rotary motion and power from one
shaft to another. It is a higher-
pair mechanism.
 Classification of Toothed Wheels
1. According to the position of axes of the shafts:
(a) Parallel, (b) Intersecting, and (c) Non-intersecting and non-parallel
2. According to the peripheral velocity of the gears:
(a) Low velocity,
(b) Medium velocity, and
(c) High velocity.
3. According to the type of gearing:
(a) External gearing,
(b) Internal gearing, and
(c) Rack and pinion.
4. According to position of teeth on the gear surface:
(a) Straight, (b) Inclined, and (c) Curved.
Terms Used in Gears (Gear Terminology)
Pitch Circle: It is an imaginary circle which by pure rolling action, would give the
same motion as the actual gear.
The pitch curve of a gear is the theoretical curve along which the gear rolls
(without slipping) on the corresponding pitch curve of the other gear, for
transmitting equivalent motion. Obviously, at the point of contact of the pitch
curves (called the pitch point), the relative velocity between the mating gears is
zero. So, these pitch curves are the loci of the relative instantaneous centres (called
centrodes) between the mating gears.
Pitch Circle Diameter (PCD): It is the diameter of the pitch circle. The size of the
gear is usually specified by the pitch circle diameter. It is also known as pitch
diameter and represented by D.
Pitch Point: It is a common point of contact between two pitch circles.
Pressure Angle or Angle of Obliquity: It is the angle between the common normal
to two gear teeth at the point of contact and the common tangent at the pitch point.
It is usually denoted by φ. The standard pressure angles are 20° and 25°. Gears
1
with 14 2 ° pressure angles have become almost obsolete.

Addendum: It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the top of the
tooth. It’s standard value is 1m (One module).
Dedendum: It is the radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the bottom of
the tooth. It’s standard value is 1.157m.
Addendum Circle: It is the circle drawn through the top of the teeth and is
concentric with the pitch circle.
Addendum circle diameter = 𝑫 + 𝟐𝒎.
Dedendum Circle: It is the circle drawn through the bottom of the teeth. It is also
called root circle.
Dedendum circle diameter = 𝑫 − (𝟐 × 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝒎).
**Note : Root Circle Diameter = PCD × cos φ
Where, φ is the pressure angle and PCD is the Pitch Circle Diameter.
Circular Pitch: It is the distance measured on the circumference of the pitch
circle from a point of one tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth. It is

usually denoted by 𝒑𝒄 .
Mathematically-
𝝅𝑫
Circular Pitch, 𝒑𝒄 =
𝑻
Where, D = Diameter of the pitch circle, and T = Number of teeth on the wheel.
**A little consideration will show that the two gears will mesh together correctly,
if the two wheels have the same circular pitch.
**Note: If D1 and D2 are the diameters of the two meshing gears having the teeth
T1 and T2 respectively, then for them to mesh correctly-

𝝅𝑫𝟏 𝝅𝑫𝟐 𝑫𝟏 𝑻𝟏
𝒑𝒄 = = or =
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝑫𝟐 𝑻𝟐

Diametral Pitch: It is the ratio of number of teeth to the pitch circle diameter per

unit length. It is denoted by 𝒑𝒅 . Mathematically-

𝑻 𝝅
Diametral pitch, 𝒑𝒅 = =
𝑫 𝒑𝒄

Module: The inverse of the diametral pitch is referred to as the module. On the other
hand, It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter per unit length to the number of
teeth. It is usually denoted by m. Mathematically-
𝑫
Module, 𝐦= 𝑻

𝝅𝑫
Also, 𝒑𝒄 = 𝑻
= 𝝅𝒎
Clearance: It is the radial distance from the top of the tooth to the bottom of the
tooth, in a meshing gear. Or, the amount by which the dedendum of a gear exceeds
the addendum of the mating gear is known as the clearance. Generally, it is denoted
by c. A circle passing through the top of the meshing gear is known as clearance
circle.
Clearance (c) = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝒎 − 𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝒎.
Line of Action or Pressure Line: The force, which the driving tooth exerts on the
driven tooth, is along a line from the pitch point to the point of contact of the two
teeth. This line is also the common normal at the point of contact of the mating
gears and is known as the line of action or the pressure line.
Path of Contact or Contact Length: The locus of the point of contact of two mating
teeth from the beginning of engagement to the end of engagement is known as the
path of contact or the contact length. Or in other words, It is the length of the
common normal cut-off by the addendum circles of the wheel and pinion.
Arc of approach: It is the portion of the path of contact from the beginning of the
engagement to the pitch point.
Arc of recess: It is the portion of the path of contact from the pitch point to the end
of the engagement of a pair of teeth.
Angle of Action (𝜹): It is the angle turned by a gear from the beginning of
engagement to the end of engagement of a pair of teeth. i.e. the angle turner by arcs
of contact of respective gear wheels.

Similarly, the angle of approach (𝜶) and angle of recess (𝜷) can be defined as-
𝜹 = 𝜶+ 𝜷
The angle will have different values for the driving and driven gears.

Contact Ratio: It is the angle of action (𝜹) divided by the pitch angle (𝜸).

𝜹 𝜶+ 𝜷
Contact ratio = =
𝜸 𝜸
As the angle of action is the angle subtended by arc of contact and the pitch angle is
the angle subtended by the circular pitch at the centre of the pitch circle, So, the
ratio of the length of arc of contact to the circular pitch is also known as contact
ratio i.e. number of pairs of teeth in contact.

𝑨𝒓𝒄 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒄𝒕
Contact ratio =
𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒄𝒉
Velocity Ratio: The velocity ratio is defined as the ratio of the angular velocity of
the follower to the angular velocity of the driving gear.
D = Pitch diameter
T = Number of teeth
𝜔 = Angular velocity (rad/sec) (𝜔 = 2πN)
N = rpm (π𝐷1𝑁1 = π𝐷2 𝑁2)

𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝝎𝟐 𝑵𝟐 𝑫𝟏 𝑻𝟏

𝑽𝑹 = = = = =
𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝝎𝟏 𝑵𝟏 𝑫𝟐 𝑻𝟐
 Law of Gearing
The law of gearing states the condition which must be fulfilled by the gear tooth
profiles to maintain a constant angular velocity ratio between two gears.
 A point C on the tooth profile of the gear-1 is in contact with a point D on the
tooth profile of the gear-2.
 Two curves in contact at point C or D must have a common normal at the point.
 Let it be n-n.
 𝜔1 = Instantaneous angular velocity of gear-1 (Clockwise).
 𝜔2 = Instantaneous angular velocity of gear-2 (Counter-clockwise).
 𝑣𝑐 = Linear velocity of C.
 𝑣𝑑 = Linear velocity of D.
 Now, 𝑣𝑐 = 𝜔1 × 𝐴𝐶 , ⊥ 𝑡𝑜 𝐴𝐶 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝛼 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 − 𝑛.
 And, 𝑣𝑑 = 𝜔2 × 𝐵𝐷 , ⊥ 𝑡𝑜 𝐵𝐷 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝛽 𝑡𝑜 𝑛 − 𝑛.
If the curved surfaces of the teeth of two gears are to remain in contact, one surface
may slide relative to the other along the common tangent t-t. The relative motion
between the surface along the common normal n-n must be zero to avoid the
separation, or the penetration of the two teeth into each other.
 Component of 𝑣𝑐 along n-n = 𝑣𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼.
 Component of 𝑣𝑑 along n-n = 𝑣𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽.
 Relative motion along n-n = 𝑣𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑣𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽.
 Now, draw ⊥ AE and BF on n-n from points A and B respectively.
 Then ∠𝐶𝐴𝐸 = 𝛼 and ∠𝐷𝐵𝐹 = 𝛽.
 For proper contact, 𝑣𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝑣𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = 0
𝜔1 𝐴𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 − 𝜔2 𝐵𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 = 0
𝐴𝐸 𝐵𝐹
𝜔1 𝐴𝐶 − 𝜔2 𝐵𝐷 =0
𝐴𝐶 𝐵𝐷

𝜔1 𝐴𝐸 − 𝜔2𝐵𝐹 = 0
𝜔1 𝐵𝐹 𝐵𝑃
= = [∵ ∆𝐴𝐸𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐵𝐹𝑃 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟]
𝜔2 𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝑃

 It is seen that the centre line AB is divided at P by the common normal in the
inverse ratio of the angular velocities of the two gears.
If it is desired that the angular velocities of two gears remain constant, the common
normal at the point of contact of the to teeth should always pass through a fixed
point P which divides the line centre in the inverse ratio of angular velocities of two
gears.
Thus, for constant angular velocity ratio of the two gears, the common normal at the
point of contact of the two mating teeth must pass through the pitch point.
 As the ∆𝐴𝐸𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐵𝐸𝑃 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟,

𝐵𝑃 𝐹𝑃
=
𝐴𝑃 𝐸𝑃
𝜔1 𝐹𝑃
=
𝜔2 𝐸𝑃
𝜔1 × 𝐸𝑃 = 𝜔2 × 𝐹𝑃
 Velocity of Sliding
If the curved surface of the two teeth of the gear-1 and gear-2 are to remain in
contact, one can have a sliding motion relative to the other along the common
tangent t-t at C or D.
 Component of 𝑣𝑐 along t-t = 𝑣𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼.
 Component of 𝑣𝑑 along t-t = 𝑣𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽.
 Velocity of sliding = 𝑣𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 − 𝑣𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽.
𝐸𝐶 𝐹𝐷
= 𝜔1 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
− 𝜔2 𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝐷

= 𝜔1 𝐸𝐶 − 𝜔2 𝐹𝐷
= 𝜔1 𝐸𝑃 + 𝑃𝐶 − 𝜔2 (𝐹𝑃 − 𝑃𝐷)
= 𝜔1 𝐸𝑃 + 𝜔1 𝑃𝐶 − 𝜔2 𝐹𝑃 + 𝜔2𝑃𝐶
= Sum of angular
velocities × distance (As C & D are the coinciding points)
between the pitch = (𝜔 +𝜔 )𝑃𝐶 + 𝜔 𝐸𝑃 − 𝜔 𝐹𝑃
1 2 1 2
point and the point
of contact = (𝜔1 +𝜔2 )𝑃𝐶 [∵ 𝜔1 𝐸𝑃 = 𝜔2 𝐹𝑃]
 Forms of Teeth
Common forms of teeth that also satisfy the law of gearing are-
1. Cycloidal profile teeth
2. Involute profile teeth

1. Cycloidal Profile Teeth:

A cycloid is the curve traced (locus) by a point on the circumference of a circle
which rolls without slipping on a fixed straight line. When a circle rolls without
slipping on the outside of a fixed circle, the curve traced by a point on the
circumference of a circle is known as epicycloid. On the other hand, if a circle
rolls without slipping on the inside of a fixed circle, then the curve traced by a
point on the circumference of a circle is called hypocycloid.
**The faces of the teeth are epicycloids and flanks are the hypocycloids.
The formation of cycloidal tooth has been shown in above Figure. A circle H rolls
inside another circle APB (pitch circle). A property of the hypocycloid is that at any
instant, the line joining the generation point A with the point of contact of the two
circles is normal to the hypocycloid, e.g. when the circle H touches the pitch circle
D, the point A is at C and CD is normal to the hypocycloid ALP.
Also, Arc length AD = Arc length CD (on the circle H)
In the same way, if the circle E rolls outside the pitch circle, starting from P, an
epicycloid PFB is obtained. Similar to the property of a hypocycloid , the line
joining the generating point with the point of contact of the two circles is a normal
to the epicycloid, e.g. When the circle E touches the pitch circle at K, the point P is
at G and GK is normal to the epicycloid PFB.
Arc length PK = Arc length KJG (on circle E)
Arc length BK = Arc length KG (on circle E)

Meshing of Cycloidal Teeth:

A little consideration will show, that the common normal X-X at the point of contact
between two cycloidal teeth always passes through the pitch point, which is the
fundamental condition for a constant velocity ratio.
Fig: Construction of two mating cycloidal teeth
2. Involute Profile Teeth:
An involute of a circle is a plane curve generated by a point on a tangent, which
rolls on the circle without slipping or path traced out by the end of a taut string
which in unwrapped from a reel. In connection with toothed wheels, the circle on
which the straight line rolls or from which the cord is unwound is known as the
base circle. The involute is traced as follows:
Let A be the starting point of the involute. The base circle is divided into equal
number of parts e.g. AP1, P1P2, P2P3 etc. The tangents at P1, P2, P3 etc. are drawn
and the length P1A1, P2A2, P3A3 equal to the arcs AP1, AP2 and AP3 are set off.
Joining the points A, A1, A2, A3 etc. we obtain the involute curve AR. A little
consideration will show that at any instant A3, the tangent A3T to the involute is
perpendicular to P3A3 and P3A3 is the normal to the involute. In other words,
normal at any point of an involute is a tangent to the circle.
Fig: Construction of involute
Meshing of Involute Teeth:
Two gear wheels-1 & 2 with centres of rotation at A and B respectively are in contact
at C. CE and CF are the tangents to the two base circles-1 & 2 respectively.
 t-t is the common tangent to the two involutes DC and GCH of the two meshing
teeth. The involute DC is traced by rolling line EF on the base circle of the gear-
2 while the involute GCH is obtained by rolling line EF on the base circle of the
gear 1.
 The tangent CF to the base circle of the gear-2 is normal to the involute DC or
the tangent t-t. Similarly, the tangent CE to the base circle of the gear-1 is
normal to the involute GC or the tangent t-t. As CE and CF both are normal to
the common tangent t-t at the point C, CE and CF lie on a straight line. Thus,
ECF is a straight line.
Interchangeable Gears:
The gears are interchangeable if they are standard ones. It is always a matter of
convenience to have gears of standard dimensions which can be replaced easily
when they are worn out. The gears are interchangeable if they have-
 Same module
 Same pressure angle
 Same addendums and dedendums, and
 Same thickness

Non-Standard Gears:
The term Non-Standard Gears apply to such gears as are modified by changing
some standard parameters like pressure angle, addendum, tooth depth or centre
distance. These changes are made to improve the performance of the gear operation
or from the economical point of view.
 Path of Contact
Let two gear wheels with centre A and B in contact(Shown in Figure)-
This pinion-1 is the driver and rotating clockwise. The wheel-2 is driven in the
counter-clockwise direction. EF is their common tangent to the base circle.
Contact of the teeth is made where the addendum circle of the wheel meets the line
of action EF, i.e. at C and is broken where the addendum circle of the pinion meets
the line of action, i.e. at D. CD is then the path of contact.
Let,
r = pitch circle radius of pinion
R = pitch circle radius of wheel
𝑟𝑎 = addendum circle radius of pinion
𝑅𝑎 = addendum circle radius of wheel
Path of contact = Path of approach + Path of recess
CD = CP + PD
= (CF – PF) + (DE – PE)

= 𝑅𝑎2 − 𝑅 2 cos 2 𝜑 − 𝑅 sin 𝜑 + 𝑟𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 cos2 𝜑) − 𝑟 sin 𝜑

= 𝑅𝑎2 − 𝑅 2 cos 2 𝜑 + 𝑟𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 cos 2 𝜑) − (𝑅 + 𝑟) sin 𝜑

It is observed that the path of approach can be found if the dimensions of the driven
wheel are known. Similarly, the path of recess is known from the dimension s of the
driving wheel (Pinion).
 Arc of Contact
The arc of contact is the distance travelled by a point on either pitch circle of the two
wheels during the period of contact of a pair of teeth.
 From the figure, at the beginning of engagement, the driving involute is shown as
GH; when the point of contact is at P, it is shown as JK and when at the end of
engagement , it is DL.
 The arc of contact is 𝑃′ 𝑃′′and it is consists of the arc of approach 𝑃′ 𝑃 and the arc
of recess 𝑃𝑃′′.
 Let the time to transverse the arc of approach is 𝑡𝑎 .
 Arc of approach = 𝑃′ 𝑃 = Tangential velocity of 𝑃′ × Time of approach.
= 𝜔𝑎 𝑟 × 𝑡𝑎 (𝑡𝑎 = time of approach)
1
= 𝜔𝑎 (𝑟 cos 𝜑) 𝑡
cos 𝜑 𝑎

1
= (Tangential velocity of H)× 𝑡𝑎 × cos 𝜑

𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐻𝐾
=
cos 𝜑

𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐹𝐾 −𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐹𝐻 𝐹𝑃 −𝐹𝐶 𝐶𝑃

= cos 𝜑
= cos 𝜑
= cos 𝜑
 Arc FK is equal to the path FP as the point P is on the generator FP that rolls on the
base circle FHK to generate the involute PK.
 Similarly, Arc FH = Path FC
 Arc of recess = 𝑃𝑃′ = Tangential velocity of P × Time of recess
= 𝜔𝑎 𝑟 × 𝑡𝑟 (𝑡𝑟 = time of recess)
1
= 𝜔𝑎 (𝑟 cos 𝜑) cos 𝜑 𝑡𝑟

1
= (Tangential velocity of K)× 𝑡𝑟 ×
cos 𝜑

𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐾𝐿
=
cos 𝜑

𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐹𝐿 −𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐹𝐾
=
cos 𝜑

𝐹𝐷 −𝐹𝑃 𝑃𝐷
𝑝𝑝 ′′= =
cos 𝜑 cos 𝜑

𝐶𝑃 𝑃𝐷 𝐶𝑃+𝑃𝐷 𝐶𝐷 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡

Arc of Contact = + = = , or, Arc of contact =
cos 𝜑 cos 𝜑 cos 𝜑 cos 𝜑 cos 𝜑
 Number of Pairs of Teeth in Contact (Contact Ratio)
 The arc length of the pitch circle traversed by appoint on it during the mating
of a pair of teeth.
 Thus all the teeth lying in between the arc of contact will be meshing with the
teeth on the other wheel.
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐶𝐷 1
 Therefore, the number of teeth in contact, 𝑛 = 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ
= cos 𝜑
× 𝑝

 As the ratio of the arc of contact to the circular pitch is also the contact ratio,
the number of teeth is also expressed in terms of contact ratio.
 For continuous transmission of motion , at least one tooth of one wheel must
be in contact with another tooth of the second wheel. Therefore, n must be
greater than unity.
 If n lies between 1 and 2, the number of teeth in contact at any time will not be
less than one and never more than two. If n is between 2 and 3, it is never less
than two pairs of teeth and not more than three pairs, and so on.
 If n is 1.6,one pair of teeth are always in contact whereas two pair of teeth are in
contact for 60% of the time.
 Interference in Involute Gears
 At any instant, the portions of the tooth profiles which are in contact must be
involves so that the line of action dose not deviate.
 If any of the two surfaces is not an involute, the two surfaces would not touch
each other tangentially and the transmission of power would not be proper.
 Mating of two non-conjugate (non-involute) teeth is known as interference
because the two teeth do not slide properly and thus rough action and binding
occurs.
 Owing to non-involute profile, the contacting teeth have different velocities which
can lock the two gears.
 If the addendum radius of the wheel is made greater than BF, the tip of the wheel
tooth will be in contact with a portion of the non-involute profile of the pinion
tooth for some of the engagement. The conclusion is that to have no interference
of the teeth, the addendum circles of the wheel and pinion must intersect the line
of action between E and F. The points E and F are called interference points.
 Note that to avoid interference , the limiting value of addendum of the wheel is GE
whereas that of the pinion is HF and the latter is clearly greater than the former. Thus if the
addenda of the wheel and pinion are to be equal, the addendum circle of the wheel passes
through the limiting point E on the line of action before the addendum circle of the pinion
passes through the limiting point F on the same line. Thus, for equal addenda of the wheel
and the pinion, the addendum radius of the wheel decides whether the interference will be
occur or not.
 Minimum Number of Teeth to Avoid Interference
As explained earlier (According to the following figure), the maximum value of
the addendum radius of the wheel to avoid interference can be upto BE.
From the figure-
(𝐵𝐸)2 = (𝐵𝐹)2 +(𝐹𝐸)2
= (𝐵𝐹)2 +(𝐹𝑃 + 𝑃𝐸)2
= (𝑅 cos 𝜑)2 + (𝑅 sin 𝜑 + 𝑟 sin 𝜑)2
= 𝑅 2 cos 2 𝜑 + 𝑅 2 sin2 𝜑 + 𝑟 2 sin2 𝜑 + 2𝑅𝑟 sin2 𝜑
= 𝑅 2 cos 2 𝜑 + sin2 𝜑 + sin2 𝜑 (𝑟 2 + 2𝑅𝑟)
1
= 𝑅2 + 1 + 2 (𝑟 2 + 2𝑅𝑟) sin2 𝜑
𝑅

2 𝑟2 2𝑟
=𝑅 1+ + sin2 𝜑
𝑅2 𝑅

𝑟 𝑟
BE = 𝑅 1 + 𝑅 𝑅
+ 2 sin2 𝜑

Therefore, the maximum value of the addendum of the wheel can be equal to ( BE-
pitch circle radius).
 𝑟 𝑟
𝑎𝑤 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅 1 + 𝑅 𝑅
+ 2 sin2 𝜑 − 𝑅

𝑟 𝑟
=𝑅 1+ + 2 sin2 𝜑 − 1
𝑅 𝑅

Let t = number of teeth on the pinion

T = number of teeth on the wheel
𝑚𝑇 𝑚𝑡 𝑇
Now, 𝑅 = 2
, 𝑟= 2
and 𝐺 = 𝑡
= 𝐺𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜

𝑚𝑇 𝑡 𝑡 𝑚𝑇 1 1
Hence, 𝑎𝑤 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1+ + 2 sin2 𝜑 − 1 = 1+ + 2 sin2 𝜑 − 1
2 𝑇 𝑇 2 𝐺 𝐺

Let the adopted value of the addendum in some case be 𝑎𝑤 times the module of teeth.
Then this adopted value of the addendum must be less than the maximum value of the
addendum to avoid interference.
 𝑚𝑇 1 1
𝑖. 𝑒. 2
1+𝐺 𝐺
+ 2 sin2 𝜑 − 1 ≥ 𝑎𝑤 𝑚

2𝑎𝑤
𝑇 ≥
1 1
1+ +2 sin2 𝜑−1
𝐺 𝐺

2𝑎𝑤
In the limit, 𝑇 =
1 1
1+ +2 sin2 𝜑−1
𝐺 𝐺

This gives the minimum number of teeth on the wheel for the given values of the
gear ratio, the pressure angle and the addendum coefficient 𝑎𝑤 .
The minimum number of teeth on the pinion is given by-

𝑇
𝑡=
𝐺
For 𝑎𝑤 = 1, i.e. when the addendum is equal to one module,

2
𝑇 ≥
1 1
1+ +2 sin2 𝜑−1
𝐺 𝐺
For equal number of teeth on the pinion and the wheel, G = 1 and,

2
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
1+3 sin2 𝜑−1

For pressure angle of 200, i.e. 𝜑 = 200

2
𝑇𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 12.31 𝑜𝑟 13
1+3 sin2 200 −1

Thus, for two wheels of equal size with 200 pressure angle and addendum equal to
one module, the minimum number of teeth on each wheel must be 13 to avoid
interference.
In case of pinion, the maximum value of the addendum radius to avoid interference is
AF (As shown in previous figure).
(𝐴𝐹)2 = (𝑟 cos 𝜑)2 +(𝑅 sin 𝜑 + 𝑟 sin 𝜑)2
It can be shown that maximum value of the addendum of the pinion is-

𝑅 𝑅 𝑚𝑡
𝑎𝑝 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑟 1 + 𝑟 𝑟
+ 2 sin2 𝜑 − 𝑟 = 2
1 + 𝐺 𝐺 + 2 sin2 𝜑 − 1
 Interference Between Rack and Pinion
Pinion is rotating in the clockwise direction and driving the rack. P is the pitch point
and PE is the line of action. Engagement of the rack tooth with the pinion tooth
occurs at C. To avoid interference, the maximum addendum of the rack can be
increased in such a way that C coincides with E. Tus, the addendum of the rack must
be less than GE.
Let the adopted value of the addendum of the rack be 𝑎𝑟 𝑚 where 𝑎𝑟 is the addendum
coefficient by which the standard value of the addendum has been multiplied.
𝐺𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸 sin 𝜑 = 𝑟 sin 𝜑 sin 𝜑 = 𝑟 sin2 𝜑
𝑚𝑡
= sin2 𝜑
2

To avoid interference,

𝑚𝑡 2 2𝑎𝑟
𝐺𝐸 ≥ 𝑎𝑟 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 sin 𝜑 ≥ 𝑎𝑟 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥
2 sin2 𝜑
When 𝑎𝑟 = 1, for standard addendum,

2
𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≥
sin2 𝜑
For 200 pressure angle, i.e. 𝜑 = 200 , Then 𝑡𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 17.1 𝑜𝑟 18
Thus, the number of minimum teeth on the pinion to avoid interference is 18.
𝐴𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘
Path of contact = CP+DP = cos 𝜑
+ 𝑟𝑎2 − 𝑟 cos 𝜑 2 − 𝑟 sin 𝜑

Maximum path of contact to avoid interference = DE = 𝑟𝑎2 − 𝑟 cos 𝜑 2

 Undercutting
 If a cutting rack having similar teeth is used to cut the teeth in the pinion, it will
remove that portion of the pinion tooth which would have interfered with the gear
as shown in figure-b.
 A gear having its material removed in this manner is said to be undercut and the
process is undercutting.
 In the pinion with small number of teeth, this can seriously weaken the tooth.
 However, when the actual gear meshes with the undercut pinion, no interference
occurs.
 Undercutting will not take place if the teeth are designed to avoid interference.
Comparison of Cycloidal and Involute Teeth