Chapter 7

Fluid mechanics

The study of the mechanics of a liquid, made up of an enormous number of material points, the atoms.
of the fluid, must give up using the model of Newtonian mechanics in terms of speed,
accelerations and forces acting on each of them; it then relies on a description in terms of magnitudes
macroscopic properties that result from the average behavior of the atoms of the liquid in question.

7.1 Fluid Statics

7.1.1 Pressure
If you define density of a body, the relationship between its mass and its volume.
m
ρ= .
V
A body is said to be homogeneous if every part has the same density. If not, the density is defined as the
point density considering the density of a small volume as it tends to zero of the volume in question.
If we define the specific weight of a body as the ratio between the magnitude of its weight and its volume:
mg
Ps= =ρg .
V
A liquid is said to be incompressible if its density is constant; that is, if its volume does not change regardless of the conditions.
the force acting on it. Real fluids are, with excellent approximation, incompressible; here it is assumed
that they are perfectly incompressible.
The pressure exerted by a force F on a surface is defined as the ratio between the magnitude F of the ⊥
component perpendicular to the surface and the area of the surface:
F⊥
p= .
S
The pressure at a point is defined as the limit of the surface tending to zero. The unit of measurement of pressure
the pascal, symbol Pa.
If a liquid is in equilibrium, its pressure has the following properties.
The force exerted by the pressure of the liquid on each of the walls of the container that holds it is
always perpendicular to the wall in question.
At every point in a liquid, the pressure is independent of the orientation of the surface with respect to which it is measured.
the pressure is calculated.
The pressure exerted by the Earth's atmosphere depends on latitude, air temperature, and
from the sea level; the normal standard value of atmospheric pressure is

p0= 101325 Pa = 1 atm = 1013.25 mbar.

112
 CHAPTER 7. MECHANICS OF LIQUIDS 113

SOLVED PROBLEMS

Problem 1
A cubic container holds one liter with an edge length of ℓ = 10.0 cm and is filled with water; knowing that the density
the water density ρ = 1000 kg/m3 Determine the pressure exerted by the water on the bottom of the container.

Solution
The pressure is due to the weight of the water pressing on the base surface of the cube. Therefore, it is valid
mg
p= ;
S
The mass of water can be calculated as the product of density and volume:
m = ρV = ρℓ3=ρSℓ;

for the desired pressure therefore it is found

ρSℓg
p= =ρℓg= 981 Pa.
S
Problem 2
Determine the force exerted by normal atmospheric pressure on the surface of a hand, assumed
in areaS= 1.0·10−2m2

Solution
It is evidently worth
F=p0 S = 1.0·103N.

7.1.2 Stevin's Law

Given two points P1eP2that
are located within a liquid of density ρ in equilibrium and are the difference
of their depths, withP2lower down, then between the pressures at the two points the relationship applies, dictated by law
of Stevin,
p2-p1=ρgh. (7.1)
Stevin's law has some immediate consequences.
Two points that are at the same depth have the same pressure.
2. A variation in pressure at one point in a liquid is transmitted entirely to every other point.
of the liquid (Pascal's law).
3. If two or more containers communicating with each other are filled with the same liquid, their free surfaces
they are at the same height (principle of communicating vessels).

PROBLEMS SOLVED

Problem 1
Determine the pressure at the bottom of a pool filled with water and depth h = 10 m.

Solution
The free surface of the water is in equilibrium with the atmosphere, so the pressure of the water here is equal.
atmospheric pressure; the sought pressure is therefore given by (7.1):
p=p0+ρgh= 2.0·105Pa.
114 CHAPTER 7. MECHANICS OF LIQUIDS

Problem 2

Two communicating vessels are filled, one with oil of density ρ.1850 kg/m3and the other with water of density
ρ2= 1000 kg/m2 knowing that the two liquids are not miscible, and that the free surface of the water
it is located adh2= 4.32 cm from the separation surface of the two liquids, determine the height h2of the
free oil surface from the same separation surface.

Solution
With reference to the figure, please consider that the free surfaces of the two
liquids are both in equilibrium with the atmosphere and therefore are found
atmospheric pressure0 ; moreover, the two liquids are in equilibrium at h1
their separation surface and therefore have the same pressure p here. 1
h2
Applying Stevin's law (7.1) to both liquids gives us therefore 2

p0=p+ρ1 gh1 , p0=p+ρ2 gh2;

from the comparison of these two equations, one finds

ρ2
ρ1 gh1=p0=ρ2 gh2 −→ h1= h25.40 cm.
ρ1

7.1.3 Archimedes' Law

A body immersed in a liquid of density ρlreceives an upward push equal
to the weight of the displaced liquid, that is, to the weight of a volume of liquid equal to the volume
of the body.

As a consequence, a body floats or sinks depending on whether its density is respectively

less than or greater than the density of the liquid.

SOLVED PROBLEMS

∗ Problem 1 x
A parallelepiped with a density of ρ = 850 kg/m3floats in a tub
of water; knowing that the base of the parallelepiped is parallel to
bottom of the tub and that the height is 40 cm determine what it is
portion of the height that emerges from the water.

Solution
Since the parallelepiped floats, its weight must equal the buoyant force of Archimedes; this, in its turn,
it is equal to the weight of a volume of water equal to the volume of the submerged part of the parallelepiped.
Because the submerged portion is high - x, the volume of the submerged part is S(h - x); therefore, the thrust of
Archimedes can be found by multiplying this volume by the density ρ.lof water for the acceleration of
gravity
FA=ρl S(h−x)g;

this expression must equal the weight of the parallelepiped that can be found by multiplying its
total volume Multiply by its density by the acceleration of gravity; therefore

ρl S(h−x)g=ρShg −→ x= ρl−ρ h = 6.0 cm.

ρl
 CHAPTER 7. MECHANICS OF LIQUIDS 115

∗ Problem 2
A boat of mass M containing a body of mass m with density ρ in a tank of water with density ρl ;
the body is then thrown overboard; to determine how the water level varies with respect to the edge of the
bowl in cases
the body sinks;
The body floats.

A B C

Solution
With reference to the figure, in case A, a volume of water V is [Link] for floating
of the boat and of the body; it is therefore worth

M+m
(m+m)g=VA ρl g −→ V A= .
ρl
In case B, a volume of water V is displaced.1sufficient for the floating of the boat alone, plus a
volumeV2equal to the volume of the body; such volumes are given by
M m
Mg=V2 ρl g−→V 1= , V2=
ρl ρ
therefore the total volume displaced in case B is
M m
VB=V1+V2= + .
ρl ρ
Now, since the body sinks, its density is greater than that of water, and therefore VB< VA , in fact, there is
M m M m m m
VB< VA←→ + < + ←→ < ←→ρ>ρ.l
ρl ρ ρl ρl ρ ρl
So if in case B less water is displaced than in case A, it means that the water level in
the tub lowers.
In case C, a volume of water V is displaced.3sufficient for the buoyancy of the boat alone, plus a
volumeV4sufficient for the buoyancy of the body; we therefore have a case identical to case A, in fact it holds true.
M m
Mg=V3 ρl g→V3= , mg=V4 ρl g→V4= ;
ρl ρl
therefore the volume of water displaced in case C is
M+m
VC=V3+V4= =VA
ρl
So in case C, the water level in the basin remains unchanged.

7.2 Dynamics of fluids

A liquid is said to be perfect if it is incompressible and non-viscous; in this section, which is limited to considering
perfect liquids whose motion is steady and irrotational. The motion of a liquid is said to be steady when the
the velocity of the molecules that compose it depends on the position but not on time; it is called irrotational
the motion of a liquid that does not form vortices.
116 CHAPTER 7. MECHANICS OF LIQUIDS

7.2.1 Flow Rate and Bernoulli's Theorem

Consider a liquid flowing in a tube, let A be the area of a section of the tube, and let ΔV be the volume of ...
liquid that flows through the section in the time interval Δt; the average flow rate of the liquid is defined
through the section in question the report
Delta V
Q=
.
∆t
If the tube is thin enough to consider the velocity constant at all points of the
section, indicating with the perpendicular vector to the section, it can be demonstrated that it holds
Q = Sv · n.

In the particular case where the section is perpendicular to the velocity of the liquid, the previous equation
it simplifies in the
Q=Sv.
For an incompressible liquid, the flow rate is the same through any section (continuity equation).
For a perfect fluid in stationary and irrotational motion with density ρ, there is a relationship, called theorem
by Bernoulli, between its pressure p, the modulus of its velocity and its height; the motion of the liquid
in fact, it takes place in such a way that at all points of it, the quantity is constant.
1
p + ρgh + ρv2constant.
2

PROBLEMI RISOLTI

Problem 1
A rubber hose for watering a garden has a diameter of11.5 cm and is held horizontally at
a height of 1.2 m from the ground; the pipe ends with a nozzle having a diameter of2= 2 mm; knowing that
Water flows through the pipe at a speed of modulus.1Determine the range of the water at 1.7 m/s.

Solution
Since the flow rate has the same value inside the tube and at the dispenser, the relationship holds
π 2 π d21
d v1=d22v2 −→ v2= v1.
4 1 4 d22
At this point, the equations of motion of the water jet are
x(t) = v2 t
! 1
t(t) = h - gt2,
2
the water jet therefore reaches the ground when t = 0, that is at the moment

2h
t= "
g
and therefore the required range is
2
G=v2 t= " 2 hoursv1 = 28 m.
2 1
g d2

Problem 2
A river, at a point where it is wide112 m deep13.5 m, receives water from a wide tributary
d24.5 m deep2 = 1.7 m; knowing that before the confluence the magnitudes of the velocities of the two
watercourses are respectively13.2 m/s ev2= 1.8 m/s and that after the confluence the dimensions
of the riverbed remain unchanged, determine the modulus of the velocity of the river water after the
confluence.
 CHAPTER 7. MECHANICS OF LIQUIDS 117

Solution
The flow rate before and after the confluence is equal; thus, we have

h2 v 2
h1 d1 v1+h2 v2 v2=h1 d1 v −→ v=v1+ v23.5 m/s.
h1 v 1

Problem 3
In a horizontal tube of section S1that has a narrowing which reduces its radius by half, is made
run water at the speed of modulo1= 4.2 m/s; determine
the module2of speed in the bottleneck;
The pressure difference between the tube and the constriction.

Solution
If the constriction has a radius half of the radius of the tube, the section of the constriction is a quarter of the
section of the tube; thus for the constancy of the flow rate, one has

1
v1 S1=v2 S2=v2 S1 −→ v2= 4v116.8 m/s.
4
In the present case, Bernoulli's theorem is written in the form
1 1
p1+ρv21=p2+ρv22
2 2
and therefore
1 15 2
p1−p2=ρ(v22-v2 ρv1= 1.3·105Pa.
2 1) = 2

Problem 4
From a cylindrical barrel of radius140 cm the wine is poured through a tap that is located
h = 80 cm lower than the free surface of the wine; determine the magnitude of the exit velocity of the
wine from the tap.

The wine that comes out of the tap and the wine on the free surface in the barrel are in equilibrium.
with the atmosphere and therefore the pressure of the wine in both cases is equal to atmospheric pressure; furthermore,
Assuming that the descent of the wine inside the barrel is very slow, it is possible to neglect the speed.
of the free surface; in this case, therefore, Bernoulli's law becomes
1
ρgh = ρv2 −→ v = 2gh
# = 4.0 m/s.
2
Note that the exit speed is what would be obtained if the wine fell freely from the height.

7.2.2 Exercises

Press
Ex. 1 - A man weighing 65 kg is standing on the snow; knowing that snow can support without
to give a total pressure, including atmospheric pressure, p = 1.1·105To establish whether the man sinks
in the snow wearing
two boots each of mass1= 0.75 kg with soles of area S12.0 dm2 ;
b) two each of mass m21.0 kg of surfaceS216 dm2 .
118 CHAPTER 7. MECHANICS OF LIQUIDS

Ex. 2 - Two hemispherical surfaces with a radius of 20 cm are placed together to reconstruct the
sphere; thus all the air is removed from inside the sphere creating a vacuum; determine the modulus of the
force necessary to separate the two hemispheres.

Ex. 3 — The four tires of a car are inflated to a relative pressure (that is, the pres-
internal pressure minus external atmospheric pressure) p = 250 kPa; knowing that the support surface
each tire has an area S = 200 cm2 determine the mass of the car.

Ex. 4 — A cylinder is suspended with the piston, of negligible mass and area S = 24 cm2 , towards the
at the piston hangs a load of mass = 5.4 kg; inside the cylinder a pump maintains a
constant pressure lower than the external atmospheric pressure; knowing that the piston descends by traveling
d = 20 cm int = 4.2 s, determine the internal pressure of the cylinder.

Stevin's Law
Ex. 1 - Knowing that the density of blood is ρ = 1060 kg/m3 determine the minimum pressure with
to which the heart must pump blood to get it to the brain which is 450 mm higher.

Ex. 2 — Assuming that air can be considered a perfect liquid with a density of ρ = 1.2 kg/m3
Determine at what altitude above sea level the atmospheric pressure is valep = 0.8p0 .

Ex. 3 - A pump draws water up a vertical tube; determine the maximum height that
Can reach the water.

Ex. 4 — A submarine is located at a depth of 180 m below sea level; its por-
The circular tank has a radius of 56.0 cm; knowing that seawater has a density of ρ = 1025 kg/m3 to determine
the total force exerted on the hatch, in the following cases:
a) the pressure inside the submarine is negligible;
b) the air pressure inside is equal to atmospheric pressure.

Ex. 5 — A surface diving watch S= 3.5 cm2can withstand a maximum force of

moduloF= 375 N; knowing that the density of seawater is ρ= 1025 kg/m3 determine the depth
to which it can be brought without being crushed.

Ex. 6 - A hollow iron cube with an edge length of 35 cm is filled with air at atmospheric pressure; it
is pushed underwater, in the sea, to a depth of 23 m where it implodes; knowing that the density
of seawater ρ = 1025 kg/m3 determine
a) the magnitude of the external force acting on each wall of the cube;
b) the magnitude of the total force acting on each wall of the cube;
c) the depth to which the cube could have reached if its internal pressure had been p = 3p0 .

Ex. 7 — The surface of the Dead Sea, whose water has a density of ρ = 1240 kg/m3 , si trova adh1=
423 m below sea level; considering air as a perfect liquid with density ρ11.2 kg/m3 ;
determine the pressure at a depth of 20 m below the surface of the Dead Sea.

Ex. 8 - A boat has a circular hole with a radius of 5.0 cm located at a depth of 1.2 m below
the water level; the leak is closed by a plug; knowing that the pressure inside the boat is the same
atmospheric, determine
a) the magnitude of the force that the cap must be able to withstand;
b) how does the modulus of such force change if the hole had double the radius.
 CHAPTER 7. MECHANICS OF FLUIDS 119

Ex. 9 - Two cylindrical vessels with a base surface area of S = 450 cm2 ,
placed on the same horizontal plane,
they contain water at different heights1= 20 cm right2= 30 cm; once the water is put in communication
Pass from one glass to another until the two heights become equal; determine the work done by the force.
weight.

Archimedes' principle
Ex. 1 - A wooden beam with volume V = 0.03 m3the density ρ = 687 kg/m3floats in water of
mare (ρl1025 kg/m3 to determine
a) the volume Vithe submerged part;
b) the mass that must be placed on the axis for it to be completely immersed.

Ex. 2 - A trunk of volume V is immersed 80% in salty water of density ρ.l 1030 kg/m3 ;
determine
a) the density of the trunk;
b) the percentage of the volume that would be submerged if the liquid were mercury, whose density is ρHg =
13600 kg/m3 .

Ex. 3 — On a wooden raft he massam1= 500 kg and density ρ = 720 kg/m3three people go up
total mass M2= 180 kg; determine the emerged volume of the raft.

Ex. 4 - A wooden cylinder is fixed to the bottom of a lake with a rope; a diver cuts it.
the string and observes that the cylinder rises with an acceleration of magnitude a = 2.0 m/s2 to determine
a) the density ρ1cylinder
b) the magnitude of the acceleration if the density of the cylinder were ρ2800 kg/m3 .

Ex. 5 - A wooden body with mass = 14 kg and density ρ = 720 kg/m3is completely immersed in
water, tied to the bottom by a rope; determine
a) the magnitude of the tension in the rope;
b) the ascent acceleration if the rope is cut.

Ex. 6 - A person with a mass of 81 kg and a volume of 89 l floats in seawater with a density of
ρl1030 kg/m3 to determine
a) the volume emergede ;
b) the magnitude of the force with which it must be pushed upwards so that the emerged volume increases by
∆V= 1.8 l.

Ex. 7 — An iceberg has emerged volumee= 1.6·104m3 knowing that the density of ice is
ρg= 920 kg/m3 , while that of seawater is ρl1025 kg/m2 determine the total volume
of the iceberg.

Ex. 8 - A vessel with a mass of 9700 t initially navigates in water with a density ρ.1=
1030 kg/m3 , then enters a river whose water has density ρ2= 1000 kg/m3 ;
a) determine whether the waterline rises or falls;
b) calculate the submerged volume of the ship in the two cases.

Ex. 9 — A boat of massam1 passing from seawater, of density ρ11025 kg/m3to water
sweet, of density21000 kg/m3 , it slightly sinks; if a ballast of mass is thrown from the boat
m250 kg returns to the initial level; determine the initial mass of the boat.
120 CHAPTER 7. MECHANICS OF LIQUIDS

Ex. 10 - A block of iron with mass m = 800 g and density ρ = 7874 kg/m3contains a cavity;
immersed in water has a decrease in weight of magnitude ∆P = 1.6 N; determine the volume of the
cavity.

Ex. 11 - A crown of massam1= 500 g made of an alloy of gold, with density ρTo= 19320 kg/m3 ,
and silver, of density ρAg10490 kg/m3 the weight while submerged in water results in a mass2=
470 g; determine the mass of gold present in the crown.

Example 12 — In a cylindrical container with a cross-section S = 0.05 m 2contains

water; determine how much
the pressure at the bottom of the container varies when a block of wood with mass is placed in the water
m= 2.4 kg.

Ex. 13 - A cube of ice floats in the water of a container; determine if the water level
Does the level in the container increase, decrease or remain unchanged when the cube has completely melted?

Ex. 14 - A pool is filled with an unknown liquid; a pressure measurement carried out at depth-
The height is 2.0 m, the value is 117960 Pa; a person of mass 70 kg and density 920 kg/m³.3yes
immerse in the liquid; determine the magnitude of the acceleration with which the person sinks.

Flow rate and Bernoulli's theorem

Example 1 - In a building, water flows to the first floor, in a pipe with a diameter of1= 6.0 cm, with
modulus velocity1= 45 cm/s at pressure p = 50 kPa; at the upper plane, which is located h = 4.2 m higher
At the top, there is a tube with a diameter of.2= 2.0 cm; determine the pressure and the magnitude of the velocity with which
The water is coming out of the taps on the second floor.

Example 2 - A reservoir of water is held by a dam; at a depth of h = 3.5 m, there is a pipe

horizontal that crosses the dam with section S= 0.12 m2with a cap on the bottom;
a) determine the force that the cap must exert to retain the water;
b) if the cap is removed, what volume of water will flow out in the time t = 5 min.

Ex. 3 — A swimming pool with a volume of V = 320 m3is

filled through a rubber tube of
radius = 1.5 cm; knowing that the speed of water in the pipe has a value of v = 2.8 m/s, determine the
time taken to fill the pool.

Example 4 — A rubber irrigation hose placed on the ground has a tiny hole from which water comes out.
water jet that reaches a height of 32.0 cm; knowing that inside the tube the water flows with
velocity of the module = 1.50 m/s, determine the pressure inside the tube.

Ex. 5 - A fountain is made up of a container in which there is water whose surface

freed maintained at height1= 100 cm from the ground; the water flows out of the container through a hole
practiced on the wall of the container ah2= 75 cm, from the ground; determine
a) the distance to which the jet reaches the ground;
b) how much should it be worth2because such distance is maximum.

Ex. 6 — Two horizontal pipes having diameter d1= 2.8 cm ed2= 1.6 cm are connected to each other;
Knowing that the pressure difference between the two pipes is ∆p = 7.5 kPa, determine the velocity of the water.
in the two tubes.

Ex. 7 — During a hurricane with wind speed of 120 km/h, a roof is ripped off.
from the difference in pressure, between inside and outside ∆p; if the roof surface is S = 50 m2 ; considering
the air as an incompressible liquid of density ρ= 1.2 kg/m3 determine the magnitude of the force that has
I acted on the roof.