Study notes

Mathematics
Content
1. Arithmetic
[Link] are numbers...................................................................................................... 3
● Natural numbers, integers, rational numbers, irrational numbers
● Decimal system
[Link] Theory. 7
● Set Operations. (Union, Intersection, Difference,
Supplement
[Link] and proportions. 18
[Link]
[Link] language......................................................................................................21
b. Properties of exponents, (Simplification of algebraic expressions using the
properties of exponents).................................................................................... 22
[Link] (simplification of radicals, expression of a radical in its standard form and in
its exponential form)...................................................................................................26
d. Operations with polynomials (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) ............................ 27
[Link] and Notable Productss..............................................................................31
[Link] rational expressionss .41
[Link] Equations .................................................................................................... 46
● Solution of a linear equation
[Link] of equationss .49
● Algebraic solution methods
● Graphic representation (interpretation)
[Link] equation with one unknown
● Resolution through the factorization method
● Resolution through completing the perfect square trinomial
● Resolution by general formula.
j. Cartesian plane and functions ........................................................................................69
● Algebraic functions: constant function, linear function, quadratic function, polynomial function and value

absolute
● Obtaining the domain and range of algebraic and rational functions
● Evaluation of functions
● Function graph
● Transcendental functions: exponential function and logarithmic function
● Reason for change of functions
○ Increasing and decreasing functions
[Link] and Trigonometry
a. Complementary and supplementary angles...............................................................108

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 b. Angles between parallels and a secant......................................................................... 109
c. Pythagorean Theorem................................................................................................. 116
[Link] of triangles............................................................................................. 118
[Link] polygons and the circle: areas and perimeters ................................................... 125
[Link] reasons: sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant .... 127
●
Obtaining sides or angles from the use of ratios
Trigonometric
● Trigonometric identities.
g. Law of sines and law of cosines ...................................................................................133
4. Analytical Geometry
a. Equations of the line............................................................................................... 136
b. Equations of the circle..................................................................................147
c. Equations of the parabola ................................................................. 155
d. Equations of the ellipse ..............................................................................................167
5. Information Processing
a. Probability and Statistics
● Statistics, population, and sample.
● Descriptive statistics and statistical inference
● Classification of variables, collection and organization of data.
○ Representation and analysis of data in tables
○ Representation and analysis of data in graphics.
[Link] tendency measures. (Arithmetic mean, Median and Mode)............................189
c. Probability...............................................................................................................192
● Sample space, event, and definition of probability.
● Graphical representation of circular probabilities.

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1.- Arithmetic
Arithmetic is the branch of mathematics whose subject of study is numbers and operations.
elementary operations performed with them: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

Just like in other areas of Mathematics, such as Algebra or Geometry, the meaning of the
Arithmetic has evolved with the broad and diversified development of the sciences.
Originally, Arithmetic was formally developed in Ancient Greece, with the refinement of
mathematical rigor and proofs, and their extension to the various disciplines of the Natural Sciences.
Currently, it can refer to Elementary Arithmetic, focused on the teaching of Mathematics.
Basic; also the set that includes Arithmetic Calculation and Mathematical Operations,
specifically, the four Basic Operations applied, whether to numbers (natural numbers, numbers
integers, fractional numbers, decimal numbers, etc.) as more abstract mathematical entities
(matrices, operators, etc.); also to the so-called high arithmetic better known as Theory of
Numbers.

What are numbers

In mathematics, a number can represent a metric quantity or more.
generally an element of a numerical system or an ordinal number that
will represent a position within an order of a given series.

Natural numbers, integers, rationals, irrationals

Natural numbers:

Natural numbers are those that have been used since the beginning of time to
count. In most countries, they have adopted Arabic numerals, called that because they were
The Arabs who introduced them in Europe, but it was in India where they were invented.

The set of natural numbers is represented as:

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Natural numbers are characterized by two properties:

● The number 1 is the first natural number and each natural number is formed
adding 1 to the previous one.
● When we subtract or divide two natural numbers, the result is not
necessarily a natural number, and that is why we say that natural numbers do not
they are closed regarding these two operations. However, they are closed with respect to the
addition and multiplication, that is, the addition or multiplication of two natural numbers
always results in another natural number.

Integer numbers:

When the need arises to distinguish some values from others based on a position of
reference is when negative numbers appear. For example, when starting from level 0 (level
above sea level or below sea level (in the
depths). Or in the case of temperatures, positive or below zero. This way we can be at
700m altitude, +700, or diving at 10m depth.
-10, and we can be at 25 degrees, +25, or at 5 degrees below 0, -5.

To denote negative numbers, we add a minus sign in front of the number.

Ultimately, the set formed by the negative integers, the number zero, and the integers
We call the set of integers positive (or natural).

It is denoted and can be written as:

We represent them on a number line as follows:

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An important property of integers is that they are closed with respect to operations.
of addition, multiplication, and subtraction, that is, the sum, the difference, and the multiplication of two
integers divide another integer. Note that the quotient of two integers, for example 3 and
7, not necessarily an integer. Thus, the division operation is not closed regarding the
integers.

Operations with integers.

Addition and subtraction

Integers with the same signs are added together, and the sign of the summands is placed.
Examples: 1) -3 -4 = -7 2) +4 +3 +5 = 12 -5 - 3 - 2 = -10
Numbers with different signs are subtracted and the result is written with the sign of the number.
greater in absolute value.
Examples: -10 +7 = -3 2) 5 - 2 + 3 - 5 = 1 3) -4 + 12 - 9 = -1
Grouping signs
They are signs that delimit or group operations between numbers. They help us define the order.
in which the operations must be carried out. The grouping symbols are the following:
Parenthesis () Keys {} Brackets [ ]

How are grouping symbols eliminated?

If a negative sign is found before the grouping sign, the signs must be eliminated.
of grouping and the elements that were inside remain, changing only the sign of
each one.
Ejemplo.- {-35 +80 +30 -24 -44} =
+35 -80 -30 +24 +44 = then follows the rule of addition and subtraction.

-110 + 103 =
-7
If the grouping symbol is preceded by a positive sign. Likewise, they should
remove the grouping signs and keep the elements while maintaining all signs as they are
which.
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Example: +(+54 –60 +24) =
54 -60 +24=
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To eliminate a grouping sign, it is multiplied by the number or sign that precedes it, in
caso de que existan varios signos de agrupación, se procede a la eliminación de adentro hacia
outside.
Example:
El resultado de simplificar -3 + [4–(5-3)]=
a) 1 b)5 -5 -1
Solution
The removal is carried out from the inside out, first eliminating the parentheses.
-3 + [4 - 5 + 3] =
Likewise, to eliminate the bracket, it is multiplied by the sign that precedes it.
-3 +4-5+3=
Applying the rule of addition and subtraction where numbers with like signs are added and
then we subtract while keeping the sign of the larger number, we would have -8 + 7 = so that the
the result would be -1 with the correct answer being option d)

Rational numbers:

Rational numbers are the numbers that result from the ratio (division) between two numbers.
integers. The set of rational numbers is denoted as Q, so:

The result of a rational number can be an integer. or a decimal

positive or negative. Also, among the decimals it can be of two types, with

a limited number of digits that we will call exact decimal o bien conun
unlimited number of digits, which we will call periodic decimal

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They are called periodic because in the decimal part there is one or more digits that repeat. Just like the
repeating numbers start at the tenths, we call them repeating

cigars while otherwise we call them mixed periodicals

Note that every integer is a rational number, since, for example, therefore, Z is a
subset of Q. In the same way that naturals are also integers, specifically
positive integers. Thus we have that:

Operations with rational numbers

Common fractions with equal denominators

the numerators are added or subtracted, the obtained number will be the numerator of the result and
as a denominator, the common denominator.

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Rational numbers are closed not only with respect to the operations of addition,
multiplication and subtraction, but also division (except by 0).

Irrational numbers:

We have seen that any rational number can be expressed as an integer, a

exact decimal or a repeating decimal.

Now, not all decimal numbers are exact or repeating, and therefore, not all
Decimal numbers can be expressed as a fraction of two integers.

These decimal numbers that are neither exact nor periodic are characterized by having infinite
non-repeating decimal figures, that is, they never end and do not have a pattern of
repetition.

Note that the set of irrational numbers is the complement of the set of
rational numbers.

Some examples of irrational numbers are where for example

it comes from the relationship between the length of a

circumference and its diameter.

Decimal system

The Decimal Number System is a positional numbering system and it is the system
that we all use without realizing why. The Decimal System uses 10 digits (from 0 to
By combining these figures, larger numbers can be expressed. For example: 2005 or
235689, 798, etc.

The reason for using the Decimal System is that human beings have ten fingers.
(10) fingers. Perhaps if we had a different number of fingers we would have used a
sistemas diferente. Esto podría ser cierto o no y sería un buentema de discusión.

Observing the lower graph, it can be seen that a number in the Decimal System is divided into digits.
with different weights. The units have a weight of 1, the tens a weight of 10, the hundreds a weight of 100, the
miles weight 1000, the tens of thousands one weight of 10000, etc.

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Each weight is associated with a power of 10. In the case of units, the power of ten is 10.0,
in the case of the tens the power is 101In the case of the hundreds, the power is 10.2, in the
in the case of thousands or thousands the power of ten is 103in the case of tens of thousands it would be
104and so it could continue.

Then to form the number 3427 we would create the following table:

It can be seen that each of the digits of the number was used and multiplied by their weight.
partner. In the case of 3, it was multiplied by 10.3in the case of 4, it was multiplied by 102, etc.

b) Set theory
The concept of a set is not defined in mathematical terms; however,
Intuitively, we have an idea of what this word means, since in daily life
our mind unconsciously organizes objects into groups such as:

● Family members
● The students of a classroom

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Set Operations. (Union, Intersection, Difference,
Complement

In sets, some basic operations can be performed, which start from some
given sets and new sets are obtained.

Let there be two sets, A and B, of the universal set U.

Union of sets

The union of two sets A and B, written A U B, is defined as the set

formed by the common and uncommon elements of both sets.

We can represent unions in Venn diagrams in the following way;

a) When the two sets have common elements, the union is represented as follows
form;

10
b) When the sets have no elements in common, the union is represented;

c) When all elements of A belong to B, the union is represented;

Properties of set union;

1° (A U A) = A

2° (A U B) = B U A

3° A U (B U C) = (A U B) U C

4° A Uᴓ = A

5° A UU=U

Example:

Let the sets be;

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Represent A U B in a Venn diagram.

In order to solve this exercise, since sets A and B are defined by comprehension,
First, it is advisable to write these sets by extension, to be able to see all their elements;

And then, we represent the union in a Venn diagram;

Intersection of sets:

The intersection of two sets A and B, which is written A ∩ B is defined as the set formed
for the common elements of A and B but

12
We can represent the intersections in Venn diagrams in the following way;

a) When the two sets have common elements, the intersection is represented by
next form;

b) When the sets have no elements in common, the intersection is equal to the empty set.
empty (ᴓ ) and is represented;

c) When all elements of A belong to B, the union is equal to A, and it

represents;

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Properties of the intersection of sets;

1° (A ∩ A) = A Idempotence

2° (A ∩ B) = (B A)
∩ Commutative

3° (A ∩ B) ∩ C = ∩ A (B∩ C) Associative

4° A∩ ᴓ =ᴓ Identity

5° A U∩ = A Identity

Note: Idempotence is the property of performing the operation multiple times and always obtaining the same result.
same result that would be obtained if it were done only once.

Example:

Determine two sets that can give rise to the intersection;

To determine two sets that give rise to this intersection, we must look for sets that
contain these letters, we will make the following sets, but you can form others;

If we represent the intersection in a Venn diagram, it would look as follows;

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Difference of sets

The difference of two sets A and B, written as A-B, is defined as the set
formed by the elements A that do not belong to B.

The difference of sets can be represented in Venn diagrams as follows

form;

a) When the two sets have common elements, the difference is represented by the
next form;

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b) When the sets have no elements in common, the difference is equal to set A.
and is represented;

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c) When all the elements of A belong to B, the difference is equal to the empty set.
(ᴓ), and it is represented;

d) When all the elements of set B belong to A, the difference is represented;

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Properties of set difference;

1° (A - B)≠B - A

2° A - B = A ∩ B’

3° A -ᴓ = A

4° A -U=ᴓ

5°O - A = O

6° A∩(B–C) = (A∩B)–(A∩C)

Example:

Sean los conjuntos A = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 } y B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} .

What is the difference between A and B?

Complementary set:

Given the set A ϵ U defines the complement set of A, which is written as Ac, the
which is formed by the elements that belong to the universal set (U), but that do not
belong to A.

The complement set of A can be represented in a Venn diagram of the

next form;

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That is to say, we can also interpret it as;

Properties of the complementary set;

1° A U AC=U

2° A∩AC=ᴓ

3°UC=ᴓ

4°ᴓ C=U

5° (AC)CA

Example:

SeaU ={ a, e, i, o, u } y A = { i, u } ¿cuál es el complemento de A?

So, if we remove the letters i and u, we get Ac.

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c) Reasons and proportions
The reasons and proportions, we call a ratio the quotient indicated by two.
numbers and represents the relationship between two quantities and a proportion to equality that
exists between two or more reasons.

Reason: A reason indicates in the form of a division the relationship between two quantities. It indicates to us

how many units there are in relation to the others, and they are usually indicated by simplifying the fractions.

For example, if in a classroom we have 24 girls and 18 boys, then it

we will represent in one of the following ways:

24/18

24:18

And since the fraction can be simplified by dividing it by 6, then we will have: 4/3

4:3

And it is read that there is a ratio of 4 to 3, or of 4 for every 3.

Each of the values of a ratio has a name. The value that is on the left side of
The relationship is called the antecedent, and the value on the right side is called the consequent.

In this case, the ratio of girls to boys is 4 to 3, or 4 girls for

every 3 children.

Proportion. The proportion indicates the comparison of two ratios through an equality.
To write a proportion, we must take into account that the antecedent values,
always be on the same side, just like the consequents.

In our classroom example, we can compare the ratio we have, of 4 girls for
every 3 children, and we will be able to calculate how many children are in a classroom in relation

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to the number of girls or vice versa. For this, first we will write the proportion that already
we know

4:3

Then, a sign of equality

4:3=

And then the total amount, for example that of the same classroom, remembering that we must respect the
order of the antecedent and of the consequent. In our example, the antecedent will be the number of
girls, and consequently the number of boys.

4:3=24:18

To check the equality of the proportion, two multiplications are performed. In one
proportion, we will take the equality sign as a reference. The numbers that are more
nearby ones are called centers, and the farthest numbers are the extremes. In our example, the
numbers 3 and 24 are the closest to the equal sign, so they are the centers. The 4 and the 18 are
the extremes. To verify that the proportion is correct, the product of the multiplication of
the centers must be equal to the product of the multiplication of the extremes:

3 X 24 = 72

4 X 18 = 72

Examples of reasons

In a box, we have 45 blue marbles and 105 red marbles. We express it as 45:105
and dividing by 15, we have that the ratio is 3:7 (three for every seven), that is, three
blue marbles for every seven red marbles.
In a school class, each ball is used by each team of five children, or
We have five students for each soccer ball. We then have in this
an example of the ratio that the relationship between students and balls is 5 to 1. This ratio is written
5:1 and we conclude that there is a ratio of five students for each soccer ball.
3. In a parking lot there are cars from Asian factories and from American factories. In
There are a total of 3060 cars, of which 1740 are manufactured.

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 Asian and the rest, 1320, are of American manufacture. This will give us that the ratio is of
1740/1320. To simplify it, we first divide by 10, which leaves us with 174/132. If
now we divide it by 6, we will have the ratio 29:22, that is to say there are in the parking lot
29 Asian cars for every 22 American cars.

Examples of proportions:

1. In a store, national and imported sweets are sold at a ratio of 3:2.

That 255 national candies are sold per day, how many imported candies are sold?
on the day?
3:2=256:?
2 X 255 = 510
510 / 3 = 170 imported candies.
3:2 = 256:170 (three is to two as 256 is to 170).
At a party, boys and girls were invited. If we know that they attended in a
proporción de 6 niñas por cada 4 niños, y en lafiesta hay 32 niños ¿Cuántasniñas
were?
6:4 = ?:32
32 X 6 = 192
192 / 4 = 48 girls went to the party. 6:4 =
6 is to 4 as 48 is to 32
To assemble a table, 14 screws are needed. How many screws do we need to assemble?
9 tables?
14:1 = ?:9
14 X 9 = 126
126 / 1 = 126 screws are needed.
14:1 = 126:9 (14 is to 1 as 126 is to 9)

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2.- Algebra
Algebra is the branch of mathematics that studies the combination of elements of structures.
abstract according to certain rules. Originally, those elements could be interpreted as numbers.
or quantities, so algebra in a certain way was originally a generalization and extension of the
arithmetic.

a) Algebraic language
Algebra is the part of mathematics that studies the relationship between numbers, letters, and signs.
Thus, algebraic language is one that uses symbols and letters to represent numbers.
algebraic language emerged in the Muslim civilization during the period of
Al-Khwarizmi during the Middle Ages. His main function is to establish and structure a language that
help to generalize the different operations that take place within arithmetic where only
the numbers and their basic arithmetic operations (+ -x%).

This type of language was first introduced by the French mathematician François Vieth,
who is considered the father of algebra expressed in words.

Algebraic language is characterized by:

● Its accuracy, as it is much more

concrete that the numerical language. Through
Statements can be expressed about him
in a brief way. Example: the set of the
Multiples of 3 are (3, 6, 9, 12…) expressed as 3n
where n = (1, 2, 3, 4...).

● It allows expressing unknown numbers and performing mathematical operations with them. Example: the
the sum of two numbers is expressed as: a+b.

● It admits the expression of general numerical relationships and properties. Example:

The commutative property is expressed as follows: a x b = b x a.

● By writing using this language, unknown quantities can be manipulated with symbols.
easy to write, allowing the simplification of theorems, formulation of equations and
inequalities and the study of how to solve them.

Algebraic language aims to establish and design a language that helps to generalize the
different operations that take place within arithmetic, where only

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They use numbers and their basic mathematical operations: addition (+), subtraction (-),
multiplication (x) and division (/).

On the other hand, an algebraic is one that represents a set of numbers and letters that are combined.
with the signs of arithmetic operations and is made up of coefficients, exponents, and
base. Example: 7×4.

Where 7 is the coefficient, x is the base, and 4 is the numerical exponent. The coefficient represents the
numerical amount or letter that is located to the left of the base, indicating the number of times that the
The base should be added or subtracted, depending on its sign. Example:

7×4 = x4+x4+x4+x4+x4+x4+x4

The numerical exponent is the quantity that is placed above and to the right of the base, indicating the number of
times that the base is taken as a product. Example: 2×3 = 2 (x) (x) (x).

The numerical value of an algebraic expression is the number that originates after substituting.
the letters by numbers, to continue, the operations indicated.

b) Properties of exponents

In mathematics, when we talk about power, we refer to a

mathematical expression that consists of two parts: base and exponent.

A power is written in the following way:

Where x is the base and m the exponent.

The result of a power is calculated by multiplying the base by itself the number of times.
let the exponent indicate it.

It is always important to consider the signs, both of the base and of the exponent, to obtain the
correct result
1. When the base has a positive sign and the exponent is an even or odd number, the
the result of the power is positive.

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 2. When the base has a negative sign and the exponent is an even number, the
the result of the power is positive.

3. When the base has a negative sign and the exponent is an odd number, the
the result of the power is negative.

Examples:
1. (2)4= (2) (2) (2) (2) = 16

-44= (-4) (-4) (-4) (-4) = 256

3. negative 75= (-7) (-7) (-7) (-7) (-7) = -16807

Properties

Product of powers with the same base

It results in a power with the same base and the sum of the exponents.

Examples:

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Division of powers with the same base

It results in a power with the same base and the difference of the exponent.
numerator minus the exponent of the denominator

Examples:

Power with zero exponent

It is the result of dividing two powers of the same base, whose exponents are equal; it
previously yields the same base with exponent zero, remembering
-that any literal or number raised to the power of zero results in one. This

property is very important for algebraic simplification.

Considering that m = n:

Examples:

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Power with negative exponent

It results from dividing two powers of the same base, where the exponent of the numerator is smaller.
that the exponent of the denominator. The result is a fraction.

Examples:

Taking the above into consideration, we can infer that a power with a negative exponent
it has the following expression:

Power of powers

It is when we have the case where a power is raised to another exponent, such that
the first power is the base of the other power

In this case, the exponents are multiplied:

Examples:

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Radicals
n
A radical is an expression of the form √a , in which n it belongs to the numbers
natural and a it belongs to the real numbers; provided that when a be negative, had
n seen
odd.

Powers and radicals

A radical can be expressed in the form of an exponent:

Equivalent radials

Using fractional exponent notation and the property of fractions that states that if
if you multiply the numerator and denominator by the same number, the fraction is equivalent.
we obtain that:

If you multiply or divide the index and the exponent of a radical by the same natural number,
another equivalent radical is obtained.

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Simplifying radicals

If there exists a natural number that divides both the index and the exponent (or the exponents) of the
by rationalizing, a simplified radical is obtained.

d) Operations with polynomials

Sum of polynomials

To add polynomials, you first need to identify the like terms in the polynomials.
and then combine them according to correct operations. Since the like terms must
having exactly the same variables raised to the same power, you need to pay attention to the
identify multiple variable polynomials. Sometimes parentheses are used to
distinguish between the sum of two polynomials and the sum of a collection of monomials. In the case
From the sum, you can simply remove the parentheses and perform the addition.

To add two polynomials, add the coefficients of the terms of the same degree.

P(x) = 2x3+ 5x−3yQ(x) = 4x−3x2+ 2x3

1.- We order the polynomials if they are not ordered.

Q(x) = 2x3-3x2+ 4x

P(x) + Q(x) = (2x3+ 5x−3) + (2x3-3x2+ 4x)

2.- We group the monomials of the same degree.

P(x) + Q(x) = 2x3+ 2x3-3 x2+ 5x + 4x - 3

3.-We add the like monomials.

P(x) + Q(x) = 4x3-3x2+ 9x−3

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Subtraction of polynomials

The subtraction of polynomials consists of adding to the minuend the opposite of the subtrahend.

P(x) - Q(x) = (2x3+ 5x - 3) - (2x3-3x2+ 4x)

P(x) − Q(x) = 2x3+ 5x - 3 - 2x3+ 3x2- 4x

P(x) - Q(x) = 2x3-2x3+ 3x2+ 5x - 4x - 3

P(x) - Q(x) = 3x2+ x - 3

Multiplication of polynomials

Multiplication of a number by a polynomial

It is another polynomial that has the same degree as the polynomial and coefficients as the product.
of the coefficients of the polynomial by the number.

3 · ( 2x3 -3 x2+ 4x−2) = 6x3-9x2+ 12x - 6

Multiplication of a monomial by a polynomial

The monomial is multiplied by each and every one of the monomials that make up the
polynomial.
3 x2(2x3-3x2+ 4x - 2) = 6x5-9x4+ 12x3-6x2

Multiplication of polynomials

P(x) = 2x2-3 Q(x) = 2x3-3x2+ 4x

Each monomial of the first polynomial is multiplied by all the elements of the second one.
polynomial.

P(x) · Q(x) = (2x2−3) · (2x3-3x2+ 4x) =

= 4x5-6x4+ 8x3-6x3+ 9x2-12x =

Like terms of the same degree are combined.

= 4x5-6x4+ 2x3+ 9x2-12x

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Another polynomial is obtained whose degree is the sum of the degrees of the polynomials that are
they multiply.

We can also multiply polynomials in the following way:

Polynomial division

P(x) = x5+ 2x3-x-8 Q(x) = x2-2x + 1

P(x) : Q(x)

On the left, we place the dividend. If the polynomial is not complete, we leave gaps.
in the appropriate places.

To the right, we place the divisor inside a box.

We divide the first monomial of the dividend by the first monomial of the divisor.

x5x2= x3

We multiply each term of the divisor polynomial by the previous result and it
we subtract from the dividend polynomial:

We divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the divisor again.
divisor. And we multiply the result by the divisor and subtract it from the dividend.

2x4: x2= 2 x2

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We proceed the same as before.

5x3: x2= 5 x

We do the same operations again.

8x2x2= 8

10x−6 is the remainder, because its degree is lower than that of the divisor and therefore it cannot be divided.
continue dividing.

x3+2x2+5x+8 is the quotient.

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e) Factorization and notable products
Factorization
Factorization or factorial decomposition is the process of presenting an expression
mathematics or a number in multiplication form. Let us remember that the factors are the
Elements of multiplication and the result is known as product.

Types of factoring
In general terms, we can talk about two types of factorization: the factorization of
integers and the factorization of algebraic expressions.

Prime factorization

Every integer can be factored into its prime factors. A prime number is
one that is only divisible by 1 and itself. For example, 2 can only be
divide between 1 and 2.

We can decompose a given number X as the multiplication of its prime factors.

For example, the number 525 is equal to the multiplication of (52)(3)(7)

Factoring algebraic expressions

The objective of factorization is to take a complicated polynomial and express it as
product of its simple polynomial factors.

Factors or divisors of an algebraic expression are the algebraic expressions that

multiplied together yield the first expression as a product. For example:

The factors are:

How to factor

When we talk about factoring, we can follow the following recommendations:

1. Observe if there is a common factor, that is, if there is a factor that repeats in the
different terms.

2. Arrange the expression: sometimes when fixing the expression we realize the
factoring possibilities.

33
 [Link] if the expression is factorable: sometimes we are faced with
expressions that cannot be factored.

4. Check if the found factors are also factorable.

Steps to find the common factor of a polynomial
We will explain step by step how to find the common factor for the terms in it.
next polynomial:

Step 1.- We find the greatest common factor of 24 and 16. The factors of 24 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6,
8, 12 and 24; the factors of 16 are 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16. The greatest common factor is
the 8.
Step 2.- We obtain the common factors of the variables, in this case the variables.
common with the greatest common power. The common variables are x and y. The greatest power
The common of x is x.6and the greatest common power of y is y3.

Step 3.-We write the common factor of the polynomial as the product of steps 1 and
2 previous:

Factorization of polynomials
Let's factor the following polynomial:

Step 1.- We determine the common factor of the polynomial:

Step 2.- We rewrite each term of the polynomial as an equivalent product of the factor
common and the second factor:

Note: 8x6y3(3x2- 8x6y3(2y4z3it is not the factored form because they are not yet
separated the factors.
Step 3.- We use the distributive property to factor out the common factor:

Step 4.- We review the completed steps:

34
Factorization of four terms
We can factor a polynomial of four terms by grouping them in pairs. Let's see it.
next example:

Step 1.- We rearrange the terms so that the first two have a common factor and the others
both also have a common factor:

Step 2.- We factor out x from the first term and y as a common factor from the...
second term

Step 3.- We use the distributive property to factor the term (a+b) from the
expression:

Factor a quadratic equation

When we have a polynomial with three terms, it can be a quadratic trinomial of
the formax2+bx+c. This expression is obtained from the multiplication of two binomials:

When factoring a quadratic equation like x2+9x+14, what we want is

obtain the two binomials that originated it: (x+7)(x+2).

Notable products
Each notable product is a formula that results from a factoring, composed of
polynomials with multiple terms such as binomials or trinomials, called factors.

35
The factors are the base of a power and have an exponent. When you
Multiply the factors, the exponents must be added.
There are several notable product formulas, some are used more than others.
depending on the polynomials, and they are the following:

Square of a binomial
It is the multiplication of a binomial by itself, expressed in power form, where
the terms are added or subtracted:

Square of a sum binomial: it is equal to the square of the first term plus twice the
product of the terms, plus the square of the second term. It is expressed as follows
way

(a + b)2(a + b)*(a + b)

In the following figure, it can be seen how the product develops according to the rule.
mentioned. The result is called the trinomial of a perfect square.

Example 1

(x + 5)² = x² + 2 (x * 5) + 5²

(x + 5)² = x² + 2(5x) + 25

(x + 5)² = x² + 10x + 25

(x + 5)² = x² + 10x + 25

Example 2

(4a + 2b)2(4a)2+ 2 (4a * 2b) + (2b)2

36
(4a + 2b)2= 16a2+ 2 (8ab) + 4b2
(4a + 2b)2= 16a2+ 16 ab + 4b2

Binomial of a squared difference: the same rule of the binomial of a sum applies, only
In this case, the second term is negative. Its formula is as follows:

(a–b)2[(a) + (- b)]2
(a–b)2= a2+2a * (-b) + (-b)2
(a–b)2= a2-2ab + b2

Example 1
(2x–6)2(2x)2-2 (2x * 6) + 62
(2x–6)2= 4x2-2 (12x) + 36 (2x)
6)2= 4x2-24x + 36

Product of conjugate binomials

Two binomials are conjugates when the second terms of each are of opposite signs.
different, that is, the first one is positive and the second one is negative or vice versa. It
Solve by squaring each monomial and then subtracting. Its formula is as follows:

(a + b)*(a - b)

In the following figure, the product of two conjugate binomials is developed,

where it is observed that the result is a difference of squares.

37
Example 1

(2a + 3b) (2a–3b) = 4a2+ (-6ab) + (6 ab) + (-9b)2) (2a

+ 3b) (2a–3b) = 4a2–9b2

Product of two binomials with a common term

It is one of the most complex and least used notable products because it
It deals with the multiplication of two binomials that have a common term. The
the rule indicates the following:

● The square of the common term.

● But sum the terms that are not common and then multiply them by the term.
common.

● But the sum of the multiplication of the terms that are not common.

It is represented in the formula: (x + a) * (x + b) and is developed as shown in the image.

The result is a non-perfect square trinomial.

38
(x + 6) * (x + 9) = x2(6 + 9) * x + (6 * 9)
(x + 6) * (x + 9) = x2+ 15x + 54

There is a possibility that the second term (the different term) is negative and its formula
(x + a) * (x - b).

39
Example 2
(7x + 4) * (7x - 2) = (7x * 7x) + (4 - 2) * 7x + (4 * -2)
(7x + 4) * (7x - 2) = 49x2+ (2)* 7x–8
(7x + 4) * (7x - 2) = 49x2+ 14x–8.

It may also be the case that both different terms are negative. Its formula
(x–a) * (x–b).

Example 3

(3b–6) * (3b–5) = (3b * 3b) + (-6–5)* (3b) + (-6 * -5)

(3b–6) * (3b–5) = 9b2+ (-11) * (3b) + (30)(3b

–6) * (3b–5) = 9b2-33b + 30

Square polynomial
In this case, there are more than two terms and to develop it, each one is squared and
are added together along with double the multiplication of one term with another; its formula is: (a + b +
c)2and the result of the operation is a squared trinomial.

40
Example 1

(3x + 2y + 4z)2(3x)2+ (2y)2(4z)2+ 2 (6xy + 12xz + 8yz)

(3x + 2y + 4z)2equals 9x2+ 4y2+ 16z2+ 12xy + 24xz + 16yz

Cubic binomial
It is a remarkably complex product. To develop it, the binomial is multiplied by
its square, as follows:

For the cube of a sum binomial:

● The cube of the first term, plus three times the square of the first
term for the second.
● Plus three times the first term, by the square of the second.
● Plus the cube of the second term.
(a + b)3(a + b) * (a + b)2
(a + b)3= (a + b) * (a2 + 2ab + b2)
(a + b)3= a3+ 2a2b + ab2+ ba2+ 2ab2+ b3(a
+ b)3= a3+ 3a2b + 3ab2+ b3

Example 1

(a + 3)3= a3+ 3(a)2(3) + 3(a)*(3)2(3)3

(a + 3)3= a3+ 3 (a)2(3) + 3(a)*(9) + 27(a
+ 3)3= a3+ 9 a2+ 27a + 27

41
For the cube of a binomial of a difference:

● The cube of the first term, minus three times the square of the first
term for the second.

● Plus the triple of the first term, times the square of the second.

● Less the cube of the second term.

(a–b)3(a-b) * (a-b)2
(a–b)3(a–b) * (a2-2ab + b2)
(a–b)3= a3-2a2b + ab2–ba2+ 2ab2–b3(a–
b)3=a3-3a2b + 3ab2–b3

Example 2

(b–5)3= b3+ 3(b)2(-5) + 3(b)(-5)2+ (-5)3

(b–5)3= b3+ 3(b)2*(-5) + 3(b)*(25) -125(b
–5)3= b3-15b2+75b–125

Cube of a trinomial

It develops by multiplying it by its square. It is a very extensive notable product.

because there are 3 terms raised to the cube, plus the triple of each term raised
squared, multiplied by each of the terms, plus six times the product of
the three terms. Seen in a better way:
(a + b + c)3(a + b + c) * (a + b + c)2
(a + b + c)3(a + b + c) * (a2+ b2+ c2+ 2ab + 2ac + 2bc)
(a + b + c)3= a3+ b3+ c3+ 3a2b + 3ab2+ 3a2c + 3ac2 + 3b2c + 3bc2+ 6abcExample
1

42
f) Simplification of rational expressions
Rational expressions are fractions that have a polynomial in the numerator or in the denominator.
denominator or in both. Although rational expressions may seem complicated
because they contain variables, they can be simplified in the same way as fractions
numerical.

Finding the Domain of an Expression

The first step to simplify a rational expression is to determine the domain, for
establish all possible values and variables. The denominator in a fraction cannot
be zero because division by zero is undefined. Then we need to find what
values of the variables in the expression would make the denominator equal to zero. These values
they cannot be included in the domain, which is why they are called excluded values. The
we ruled out from the beginning, before continuing.

For rational expressions, the domain will exclude the values for which the value of
denominator is 0. Two examples that illustrate the search for the domain of the expression are
they show below.

Problem:

Identify the domain of the expression

x-4=0 Find a value of x that would make the denominator = 0

x=4 When x = 4, the denominator is equal to 0

Solution: The domain is all values of x that are not equal to 4.

It wasn't difficult, let's try one that's a bit more complicated:

Problem:

Identify the domain of the expression

1.- Find a value of x that would make the denominator = 0. Set the denominator to 0 and
solve the equation

=0

43
2.- Solve the equation by factoring. The solutions are the values that are excluded.
of the domain
(x + 9)(x - 1) = 0 x= -9 ox =1

Solution: The domain is all values of x different from -9 or 1

Simplifying Rational Expressions

Once you have found the excluded values, the next step is to simplify.
to simplify a rational expression, we must follow the same method we would use to
simplify numerical fractions: find common factors in the numerator and in the
denominator. Let's start with a numerical fraction to understand this method:

Problem:

Simplify:

1.- Factor the numerator and the denominator: 2.-

Extract the factors of 1:

Simplify: Solution:

Well, we could have done this problem mentally. But it was worth writing it down,
because this is exactly how we simplify a rational expression.

So let's simplify a rational expression, using the same technique we just finished.
to apply for the fraction. Only this time the numerator and denominator are monomials
with variables:

Problem:

Simplify and find the domain of the expression

44
Observe—the same steps worked again. In the following examples, the
numerator and the denominator are polynomials with more than one term, but apply them
same principles of simplification. Factor the numerator and the denominator to
simplify the rational expression.

45
46
Summary

Rational expressions, or fractions that contain polynomials, can be simplified.

in a similar way to fractions. To simplify a rational expression, first
determine the common factors of the numerator and the denominator, and then eliminate them
rewriting them as expressions equal to 1.

47
g) Linear equations
Linear equations or first-degree equations are of the type ax + b = 0, with a ≠ 0, or any other.
equation in which, after operating, transposing terms and simplifying, they adopt that expression.

Solution of a linear equation

In general, to solve a linear equation or a first-degree equation, we must follow the
next steps:

[Link] parentheses
[Link] denominators
[Link] the terms in x on one side and the independent terms on the other.
4. Reduce the like terms.
5. Clear the unknown
Examples of linear equations
2x = 6

We clear the Unknown

x = 6/2 x=3

We grouped the similar and independent terms, and we added them:

We remove parentheses:

We group terms and sum:

48
We clear up the mystery:

We eliminate denominators; to do this, we first find the least common multiple.

We remove parentheses, group, and sum the like terms:

We clear the unknown:

We remove parentheses and simplify:

We eliminate the denominators, group, and sum the like terms:

49
We remove the bracket:

We remove parentheses:

We eliminate denominators:

We remove parentheses:

We group terms:

We add:

We divide both sides by: -9

x=3

50
h) Systems of equations
A system of linear equations is a set of two or more first-degree equations, in the
how two or more unknowns are related.

In systems of equations, the values of the unknowns must be sought, with which to
replace, they must provide the solution proposed in both equations.

Each of the equations is also referred to as constraints or conditions.

Every system of linear equations with two unknowns, x and y, has the following
representations:

The unknowns are a, b, c, d, and the coefficients are real (ℝ).

The unknowns established in a system represent the point where the lines intersect.
a Cartesian plane (x,y).

What is a Cartesian plane?

In case you don't remember, a Cartesian plane is two perpendicular number lines, one
horizontal and another vertical that intersect at a point called the origin or zero of the system.

51
Algebraic solution methods

Reduction

It consists of equalizing the coefficients of the same variable in both equations, and then,
sum and subtract the equations, so that the terms whose coefficients are eliminated
they equalized.

Example:

Step 1 - We will equalize one of the unknowns in the system. In this case, we will start.
equalizing the unknown y. To do this, I multiply the second equation by 2, resulting in 4x + 2y = 28

52
Step 2-Now, we add or subtract (as required) the like terms to simplify.
remove the term common coefficient.

Then, I solve the equation, resulting in x=5, since:

We already have the value of one of the unknowns. To identify the other value, we must
replace in one of the equations the value we obtained dex. in this case:

Therefore, the solution to our system of equations is → S: (5, 4)

Substitution

53
It consists of isolating a variable from one of the equations and substituting it into another equation.

Example:

First, we will isolate any of the unknowns from this equation. We

we will choose to solve for x in the second equation. To do this, we will move all the terms
that are not x towards the other side of the equality.

Knowing the value of x, we substitute it into the other equation:

Once we know the value of the other unknown (in this case, y), we substitute it into the
equation:

Solución: (20,14)

54
Equalization
This consists of isolating the same variable from both equations of the system. Once isolated,
the results are equalized, isolating the only variable that remains.

Example:

1. We must clear any of the unknowns from the equation. In this case, we...
we chose to clear y.

2. The obtained expressions are equal: y = y

3. Now, the resulting equation is solved, which has an unknown:

[Link] the value of 'x' is identified, we replace it in any of the

equations of the system.

Solution: (20,10)

55
Graphic representation (interpretation) of the types of systems
There are 3 types of systems of equations: equivalent systems, systems with no solution or
incompatible, and the systems with infinite solutions or compatible indeterminate.

Equivalent systems
They are characterized by having a single solution from two unknowns. In the
Cartesian plane, lines are represented by forming intersecting lines (only one point on the line).

For example:

By performing the operations of addition and subtraction, we obtain:

Replacing:

S (2,5)

56
Incompatible system:

They are those systems where there is no possible solution. In the Cartesian plane,
they are represented by parallel lines (no point).

Example:

In the previous example, we can see that two equal equations result in a
distinct number. This means that the equations do not have common results, since if the
If it had been, the result of both equations would be the same.

In the Cartesian plane, the equations would be represented in an independent way.

They obtain two parallel lines (they do not intersect). Therefore, the system has no solution.

Indeterminate compatible systems:

They are those systems where there are infinite solutions. In the Cartesian plane, it is represented
with coincident lines (infinite points).

Example:

57
In this case, we can observe that the equations of this system are exactly equal, already
that 2x + 2y = 6 is the same as x + y = 3, but amplified by 2. This means that any
A point on the line is the solution of the system.

Therefore:

To solve problems that involve a system of equations, we must follow

these steps:

1. Read the statement carefully and identify the unknowns. 2.

Translate the statement into several equations.

3. Solve the system and interpret the solution.

i) Second degree equation with one unknown

A second degree equation or also called a quadratic equation with one variable, is
Every equation that presents a single letter called an unknown, which is normally referred to as
the equation, in which, once simplified, the highest exponent of the variable is two, that is,
when the unknown is raised to the square.

Then, the degree of the equation will be determined by the maximum exponent, once
simplified the equation, which in this case is 2. If the maximum exponent were raised to 3, it would...
I would call it a cubic equation (e.g.: 2x3-10x2+ 22x - 14 = 0), and if

58
If it were raised to the 4th power, the equation would be of the fourth degree (e.g.: x4-7x3+ 13x2+ 23x - 78 = 0), and so
successively.

Thus, a second degree or quadratic equation with one variable will be in the form;

Resolution through the factoring method

To solve quadratic equations by factoring (also called

by factor decomposition), it is necessary that the trinomial of the form ax2+ bx + c = 0 is
factored by a common term or by applying a notable product.

For this,

You should simplify the given equation and leave it in the form ax.2+ bx + c = 0.

2° Factor the trinomial of the first member of the equation, to obtain the product of
binomials.

3° Set each of the factors to zero, we can do this since we know that if a
the product is equal to zero, one of its factors or both are equal to zero. Then, it
they solve the simple equations obtained in this way.

Example

Solve by factoring the equation X2- x - 6 = 0

In this case, the equation is simplified, so we factor and set it equal to

zero the factors;

59
 Answer: The roots of the equation are -2 and 3.

Resolution by completing the perfect square trinomial

Method of completing the square to solve the quadratic equation of the form
ax2+ bx + c = 0

The method of completing the square, also called square completion, or completion.
of squares, is the technique that is used when we have a second-degree equation or
quadratic, of the type ax2+ bx + c = 0, with a not equal to 0, and we transform it, first into a
perfect square trinomial, with the aim of 'completing' the

60
Equation to create a square of a binomial and thus be able to solve for the unknown X and reach the
roots or solutions.

In order for you to better understand this method, we will first consider the equation of the type x.2+
bx + c = 0, which, if we transpose the term c, we have: x2+ bx = - c.

If we observe the first part of the equality we see that we have the binomial x.2 + bx, to which it
A term is missing to form a perfect square trinomial (?)2. This term is the square of
half of the coefficient of the second term, (b/2)2if we solve the square it would remain b2/4.

We will clarify so that you can understand better;

Thus, we form the perfect square trinomial; whose first term is the square of
x, its second term is double the product of dexporb/2 and its third term is the square.
from the halfway point of b. To ensure that the equation is not altered, we add the same amount to the other side of
equality.

61
We factor the perfect square trinomial;

We take the square root on both sides of the equation to remove the square;

We rearrange and move b/2 to the other side of the equation;

So, the roots of the equation are;

62
Now that you understand this method, let's see when the coefficient of x2is greater than 1. The
procedimiento es esencialmente el mismo, sólo que antes dividimos poralaecuación.

And we carry out the same steps already explained; We transpose the independent term.
we add the missing term to achieve the perfect square trinomial (which is half of b to the
square) on both sides of the equality;

We factor the perfect square trinomial;

We take the square root on both sides of the equation to eliminate the square;

We organize and pasamosb/2aal

other side of the equality

63
So, the roots of the equation are;

If we continued developing the equation that we obtained by the method of completing the square,
we would also reach the general formula, explained in the previous topic.
Let's see

This demonstrates that the method for finding the roots of the quadratic equation is
the same in both cases, the difference is that by the method of completing the square you have
that carrying out all the development, instead, when applying the general formula it is only necessary
replace the data.

64
Example:
Solve the equation x using the method of completing the square.2= 16 x - [Link]
we will arrange the equation;

We add the term to both sides of the equation to form the perfect square trinomial.
(remember that it is the square of half of the quotient x);

We factor the perfect square trinomial;

We take the square root on both sides of the equation to eliminate the square;

We move to the other side of the equality and solve the roots of the equation;

65
Resolution by general formula
The general formula is the one that is used to solve all quadratic equations.
quadratic, of the type ax2+ bx + c = 0, with 'a' different from 0, including also the equations
incomplete, considering equal to 0.
There are several methods to demonstrate how to arrive at this general formula, here you
we will show what we believe will be easy to understand.

In order to isolate x and find the roots (or solutions), the first thing we will do is isolate the
first term2, that is, we will equal the term to 1. To do this, we divide by the equation
ax2+ bx + c = 0, which will help us form a perfect square trinomial and then,
a square of a binomial (notable product).

Now, we transpose the element c/a which will be -c/a. The square of the binomial that
we will create to solve the second degree equation will be (x + y)2, which we know is equal to
perfect square trinomial2+ 2 x y + y2If we analyze this equation, we can see that, the
first term squared2we have it, double the first term by the second term
2xy is equal to ab/a x, and the second term squared y2, we don't have it, which is why we have it
what to add to both sides, to one side to form the perfect square trinomial, and to the other side
to maintain equality.

66
Then, we factor the perfect square trinomial and are left with the square of a binomial.
(x + y)2.

We solved for the variable (y) to replace it with the original terms of the equation.
second grade. As we saw earlier, 2xy = b / ax, if we isolate y we will have y = b / 2
a. Notice how we did it in the following graph;

67
Now, we replace the value of y in the equation, we solve (b / 2a)2and we take out the minimum
common multiple that is 42and we resolve.

Once solved, to isolate x, we would need to eliminate the square, for which we extract the
root, then we transpose the term b/2a, and we get [Link]. and solve.

68
Thus we solve for x, y and obtain the general formula that will give us the two roots of the equation.
ax2+ bx + c = 0, with a not equal to 0. The two roots (or solutions) are determined by the
sign + o - the square root of b2- 4 a.m.

By applying this formula, you will be able to solve any quadratic equation.

Discriminant of the general formula

The discriminant of the general formula of a quadratic equation is the quantity
subradical b24 a cy is designated with the letter delta .
The elder discriminant it is what will determine the roots (or solutions) of an equation
quadratic.

When The quadratic equation has two different real solutions. Since it exists.
it is the perfect square, both roots are rational, and if it is not
perfect square, both roots are irrational.

When = 0 the quadratic equation has two real and equal solutions. Since the root
the square is null If = 0), then the solutions would be equal to -b/2a.

When < 0 the quadratic equation has two conjugate complex solutions, that is, it does
it has real solutions, since the square root of a negative number is not a real number. They are
imaginary roots.

69
Example applying the general formula:
Solve the following equation using the general formula: 8x2-
2x - 3 = 0

The roots of the equation 8x2-2x - 3 = 0; x1= 3/4 y x2-1/2. How

= 100, they are real and rational solutions.

70
j) Cartesian plane and functions
The Cartesian plane is formed by two number lines, one horizontal and the other vertical that
they intersect at a point. The horizontal line is called the axis of abscissas or the x-axis (x), and the
vertical, axis of ordinates or of yes, (y); the point where they intersect is called
origin.
The Cartesian plane aims to describe the position of points, which are
represented by their coordinates or ordered pairs. The coordinates are formed by associating a
value of the X-axis and one of the Y-axis, respectively, this indicates that a point can be
locate on the Cartesian plane based on its coordinates, which is represented as:

P(x, y)

A function is a relationship between two magnitudes or quantities, for example x and f(x), in such a way
that for each value of the first magnitude called preimage, there corresponds a unique value of the
second, called image.

The first magnitude or pre-image will be referred to as the independent variable and the second
magnitude or image (which is deduced from the first) will be referred to as the dependent variable. For
For example, if the independent variable is x, the dependent variable will be f(x), which is read as 'f of x'.
which is generally designated by the letter y. Then, it will be said that y is a function of x, or that y
it depends on x.

71
Algebraic functions: constant function, linear function, quadratic function, polynomial and
absolute value

Constant function

The constant function is of the type:

y=n

The criterion is given by a real number.

the slope is 0.

Graph a horizontal line parallel to the x-axis.

Vertical lines

Lines parallel to the y-axis are not functions, since one value of x has infinite values.
images and for it to be a function it can only have one. They are of the type:

x=K

72
Linear function
To understand the concept of 'linear function', it is necessary to take into account and understand several
concepts.

First, let's define what a 'function' is. When we talk about function, we have to think about
functioning something that works. a set of elements, processes that allow something
functions (iron, washing machine, etc.)

That is, when talking about function, we see that there are input elements, there is a function
(process) and a result.
In summary, we will say that a function is a relationship between two or more variables.

Functions constitute a useful tool to describe, analyze, and interpret different

situations arising from Mathematics and other sciences.

Second: we define what is a 'variable', when talking about variables, we refer to the different
elements, factors, characteristics that define an object, a situation or a phenomenon. Example:
the weight, the quantity, the speed, the time, the color, the height, etc.

In mathematics (logic, statistics, economics, and other sciences), a variable is a symbol

(usually a letter) that represents an unknown value or element.
Example: To represent any number, it can be represented by X, or any letter.
In an equation like 2x-7, X represents the variable.

Third: The types of variables: In a function, we have two types of variables:

Independent and Dependent.
The independent variable, as its name indicates, does not depend on anyone, it is the one that coincides
in the value or performance of the other with which it is related. It is generally denoted by the
the letter X, and in the Cartesian plane corresponds to the horizontal axis

The dependent variable is the one that depends on the independent one, that is, its value or
behavior is determined by the values that X takes. Generally denoted by the letter
Y corresponds to the vertical axis in the Cartesian plane.

Example:

1. In the relationship between the price paid for a product and the quantity
purchased; the quantity (variable x) determines the price to be paid (variable y)
In the relationship between speed and time, speed (variable x) determines time.
spent in covering any distance (variable y)

Fourth: The type of relationship between the variables in a function is proportional, that is,
increase or decrease in the same proportion. According to this, the relationship between the
variables can be 'directly proportional' or 'inversely proportional'.

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Directly proportional: when one variable increases or decreases, the other one does too.
increases or decreases in the same proportion. Example: the amount of bread (in kilos) and its
price. The larger the quantity, the higher the price paid and vice versa.

Inversely Proportional: when one variable increases, the other decreases and vice versa, in the
same proportion. Example: the speed at which a car travels and the time it takes to cover a
distance. Higher speed, less time and vice versa.

Fifth: The Linear Function. The linear function is the representation of the relationship between two
variables. We can represent this through a statement of a situation
problematic, a mathematical formula or a graph in the Cartesian plane.

The resulting graph will be a straight line.

Its general formula is f(X) = mx + b or Y = mx + b (Non-proportional linear function) It does not pass
through the origin, it cuts the Y-axis at b.

There is also the Affine Linear function f(X) = mx or Y = mx (Proportional linear function) Goes
by the origin, coordinate (0,0)

Sixth: Elements of the linear function:

m = is the slope of the line, that is, its inclination. If m > 0 (positive), the line goes up.
increasing. If m < 0 (negative) the line is decreasing and if m = 0, the line is constant.
b = is the intercept with the Y-axis, that is, where the line crosses the Y-axis (when the line does not pass through.
for the origin) and as we see in the straight line equation, b corresponds to the independent term
(number that is not accompanied by letters)

Seventh: The formulas of the linear function. When working with functions, several are available.
Options to solve them. If I have the formula, I can give values to X and see what value Y takes.
That is to say, he built a table of values to find at least two points (only two are needed).
points to draw a line) and then locate the found coordinates on the Cartesian plane and
draw the line.

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If you have two points (coordinates) and from them find the formula of the line

to find the slope, that is the variation in Y over the variation in X.

Slope formula, this is

Once we know the value of the slope (m), we select a point A, and
we apply the formula to find the equation of the line

Point-slope formula, this is:

where Y and X (are values that are not known) X1 and Y1 correspond to the coordinates of the point
A, which was selected.

Replacing the obtained values, one arrives at the equation of the line.

Example
A linear function of a single dependent variable
axes in the form:

what is known as the equation of the line in the plane

x, y.
The figure shows two lines, which correspond to the
following linear equations:

in this line the parameter is equal to

(corresponds to the value of the slope of the line), that is to say, when we increase x in a
Then the unit increases by ½ unit, the value you must use is 2, then the line cuts the x-axis at the
puntoy= 2

In the equation the slope of the line is the parameter that is to say,
when the value decreases by one unit, the value also decreases by one unit; the cut
with the eyes in , given that the value of

75
On a line the value of corresponds to the angle and the inclination of the line with the axis of the
through the expression:

Quadratic function
As you already know, a function is a relationship between two magnitudes, xyf(x), in such a way that to
each value of the first magnitude corresponds to a unique value of the second, which is called
image.

A quadratic function is one that is determined by the second-degree equation.

degree (quadratic) of the form;

Since by real numbers, x ≠ 0, since if a = 0, x is annulled.2, and it wouldn't be a

quadratic equation.

The graphical representation of a quadratic function is called a parabola.

Graphical representation: Parabola

The parabola of the quadratic function is a symmetric curve with respect to a straight line parallel to
y-axis, which is called the axis of symmetry. The parabola is composed of all
The ordered pairs (x, y) that satisfy the quadratic equation y = ax.2+ bx c.

The shape of the parabola of the quadratic function is determined by a vertex, through which it passes.
draw the axis of symmetry, the intersection points on the xy axis, the intersection point on the y axis.
The tracing of the parabola is called the parabola.

We graph a parabola of a quadratic function, we can see:

76
These points that form the parabola are determined by the numerical coefficients a and b.
dex2y x respectively, and the independent term of the quadratic equation.

77
Branches of the parabola

To determine the direction of the branches of the parabola (upward or downward), it will depend on
numeric coefficient adex2.

If it is greater than zero (that is, it is a positive number), the branches of the parabola will open towards
up, and if it is less than zero (that is, it is a negative number), the branches of the parabola will go
downwards.

78
It will also depend on the numerical coefficient a, the expansion or contraction of the parabola,
Since, if the absolute value of a decreases, the parabola contracts if its value decreases.
absolute value of a, the parabola expands.

Let's see an example;

Cut-off point with the axis

The cutoff point in the axis is determined by the value of the independent term c, since, if
we analyze a quadratic function y = f(x) = ax2+ bx + c, conx = 0 obtain;

79
Then, the point of coordinates (0, c) of a quadratic function f(x) = ax2+ bx + c,
corresponds to the point where the parabola intersects the y-axis.

Cut-off points with the X axis

To determine the points where the parabola will cross the x-axis or the abscissas,
we will analyze the quadratic function y = f(x) = ax2+ bx + c. First, we know that the points
On the x-axis they must have a y-coordinate equal to zero (x, 0), therefore the function is equal
a zero = f(x) = 0, which is equal to;

As you can see, we have a quadratic equation with one unknown, which we can
solve with the general formula;

80
Entonces, así obtenemos las dos raíces de la ecuación cuadrática, serían los puntos deintersección
with the x-axis. The coordinates of these points will be;

As we know, the roots of a quadratic equation depend on the discriminant.

Remember that the discriminant is the subradical quantity b.2- 4 a c y is designated with the letter
delta.

81
According to the value of the discriminant, the quadratic function intersects the axis two times, once, or not at all.

x;

82
Vertex and axis of symmetry

The vertex is the point where the parabola changes direction, it is where the axis passes.
symmetry. When a > 0 the vertex will be the minimum point of the parabola, on the other hand, if a < 0 the
The vertex will be the maximum point of the parabola.

To find the vertex, we need to obtain the coordinates of this point.

For this, we know that the parabola is symmetric, therefore, we can find the
component x of the vertex that is called xv, since it is right in the middle between the roots (or
solutions) of the quadratic equation.

So, the x componentvwe can find it by averaging the roots;

83
According to the properties of the roots x1+ x2= (-b/a). We replace;

Obtaining this point we can draw the line of symmetry, since this is a parallelogram.
to the y-axis (ordinates) and passes through the vertex.

Then, to find the component y, which is called yv, we replacevin the formula
of quadratic function;

84
So, the coordinates of the vertex of a parabola of quadratic function of the form f
(x)= ax2+ bx + cserán;

If we manage it;

If you analyze these coordinates, you will realize that;

● Sib = 0, the y-axis is the axis of symmetry of the parabola.

● If Sia > 0yb > 0, the vertex of the parabola will be to the left of the y-axis, since;
b/2a < 0.
● If Sia > 0yb < 0, the vertex of the parabola will be to the right of the y-axis, since;
b2a > 0.

85
 ● If < 0yb < 0, the vertex of the parabola will be found to the left of the y-axis, since;
b/2a < 0.
● If < 0yb > 0, the vertex of the parabola will be to the right of the y-axis, since;
b2a > 0.

Examples of quadratic functions;

1) Let's graph the function y = x2+ 1.

To graph this quadratic function, we need to arbitrarily assign values to x to

find those that correspond to y. After making this table, you will be able to graph in the plane
Cartesian.

86
In the parabola of this function, we can observe that;

- The curve does not touch the x-axis because the roots are imaginary.

This is what we can verify if we replace2- 4ac = 02- 4 = - 4. Like the

if the discriminant is negative, the curve does not touch the x-axis.

- The parabola opens upwards since a = 1, that is, a > 0.

- The vertex is (0,1) for this function as a > 0 is the minimum point of the parabola, and the edge of
Symmetry corresponds to the y-axis.

- The axis cuts at the same point of the vertex, since c = 1.

2) Let's graph the function y = -x2+ 2x + 8.

Just like in example 1, we assign values to find the corresponding ones, then
we graph.

87
In the parabola of this function we can observe that;

- The curve touches the x-axis at two points whose coordinates are (-2,0) and (4,0). Remember that the
Points where the parabola intersects the x-axis are the roots of the quadratic equation.

We can also verify that the short parabola separates two points, since, if
we replace the data in the discriminant2- 4ac = 4 + 32 = 36. Since the discriminant is
the positive curve intersects the x-axis at two points.

- The parabola opens downward since a = -1, that is, a < 0.

- The vertex is (1,9) for this function, as a < 0 is the maximum point of the parabola. You can
verify using the formulas to find the vertex (-b/2a, c-b)2/4a).

- The line is cut at the point (0,8), since c = 8.

Polynomial function

A polynomial function is a function whose expression is a polynomial such as:

The domain of polynomial functions is all real numbers.

Polynomial functions are continuous throughout their domain.

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Tipos de funciones polinomiales

Polynomial functions can be classified into different types according to the degree of the polynomial:

● Constant functions: they are polynomial functions of degree 0 (since 0 is the coefficient)
They do not depend on the independent variable x:

Its graphical representation is a line parallel to the x-axis.

● First-degree polynomial functions or degree 1: they are functions that are

composed of a scalar that multiplies the independent variable plus a constant.
Its greatest exponent is raised to 1.

Its graphic representation is a straight line with slope m.

89
 Lames the slope and throws the ordinate, or point where it intersects the line.
to the y-axis. According to the values of demyn, there are three types:

○ Affine functions: they are first-degree functions that do not pass through the origin.

that is, the ordinate is not null (n≠0):

○ Linear functions: they are polynomial functions of degree 1 such that the
ordered is null (n = 0), so that:

○ Identity functions: it is a special case of linear functions, such that at each

elementoxle corresponds this same value enf(x). That is, m= 1 and n=
0.

● Quadratic functions: they are polynomial functions of degree 2, that is, their highest
exponent raised to 2 (x2):

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 ● Cubic functions: they are polynomial functions of degree 3. Therefore, their highest
exponent raised to 3 (x3):

Properties of polynomial functions

If f(x) and g(x) are polynomial functions, then:

● The sum of two polynomial functions is a polynomial function.

to say
f(x) + g(x) is polynomial

91
● The product of two polynomial functions is a polynomial function. That is:
f(x) · g(x) is polynomial

● The product of a scalar and a polynomial function is a polynomial function. That is:
a·g(x) is polynomial

● The composition of twofunctionspolinómicas is afunctionpolinomic. Therefore:

f o g(x) is polynomial

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Absolute value

The absolute value of a number is its distance from zero on a number line. For example,
4 y -4 have the same absolute value (4).

Thus, the absolute value of a positive number is just the same number, and the value
The absolute value of a negative number is its opposite. The absolute value of 0 is 0.

Easy!

The absolute value is written as |x|. Thus,

|4| = 4

|–4| = 4

|54221.997| = 54221.997

|(-1/4)| = 1/4

Absolute value function

An absolute value function is a function that contains an algebraic expression inside of

the absolute value symbols. Remember that the absolute value of a number is its distance
from 0 on the number line.

The absolute value function, written as f(x) = |x|, is defined as

Paragraphifying an absolute value function, choose different values of x and y and find some.
ordered pairs.

93
Graph the points on a coordinate plane and connect them.

Note that the graphs have the shape of V.

(1) The vertex of the graph is (0, 0).

The axis of symmetry (x = 0 or y-axis) is the line that divides the graph into two halves.
congruent.

(3) The domain is the set of all real numbers.

The range is the set of all real numbers greater than or equal to 0. .

(5) The intersection in x and the intersection in both are 0.

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Obtaining the domain and range of algebraic and rational functions

What is the domain of a function?

The domain of a function is the range of values of x for which f(x) exists, that is, the
values of x, for which f(x) has a result.
He is designated as Dom f.

It looks a bit frightening like this, but as we start solving examples, it will become clearer to you.
much clearer.

Para calcular el dominio de una función, debemos obtener los valores de x, para los queexista esa
function. Or in other words, we must find for what values of x the function does not exist and
keep the values of x where the function exists.

El dominio de una función depende mucho del tipo de función.

When a function does not exist

A function will not exist when for the values of x that cause the following gaps:

1-When a number is divided by 0:

95
2-When the content of a root with an even index is a negative number

3-When the content of a logarithm is 0 or a negative number

Now that you know that a function can have a value for some values of x or it may not.
To exist for other values of x, I will proceed to explain how to calculate the domain of a
function.

Domain of a polynomial function

Polynomial functions are those in which there are neither denominators nor roots.

The x can appear added, subtracted, multiplied, or raised to some exponent, like by
example:

In this type of functions, there is no value of x that makes f(x) nonexistent. Therefore,
f(x) always exists.

When a function always exists, its domain is the entire set of real numbers:

96
How is the domain of a rational function calculated?

Rational functions exist for all R, except for the values that make it 0.
denominator.

Therefore, to calculate the domain of a rational function, we must find the values
What makes 0 the denominator and taking it away from R.

For example:

This function will always exist, except when the denominator is equal to 0. Therefore, we must
find that restriction that nullifies the denominator.

For the function to exist, the denominator must be different from 0:

And this restriction is a first-degree equation, from which we must isolate x:

When x=1, the denominator will be 0. Therefore, for f(x) to exist, x must be different.
of 1 and that is the value to be subtracted from R:

The domain is all of R minus the set formed by the number 1.

Let's look at another example:

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Just like before, this function will exist as long as the denominator is not 0. Therefore,
we calculate the values that make the denominator 0:

That is, the function will exist as long as x is different from 2 and 3, therefore the domain is all R.
minus 2 and 3:

Range of a function

The range or output of a function is the set of real values it takes.

the variable y or f(x).

98
Evaluation of functions

A mathematical relationship can be expressed as a set of ordered pairs (x, y).

elements of these ordered pairs satisfy some mathematical condition previously
established between them.

When a set of ordered pairs satisfies the condition: "to each value of x le
corresponds to a single value of y", it is said that this set of ordered pairs represents
a function and when that case occurs, 'y' is represented as f(x), that is: y = f(x).
example, the relationship that is expressed: {(1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6), (4, 8),...}, satisfies the condition:
the value of y is double the value of x. It represents a function because to each value of 'x' it
it corresponds to a single value of 'y'.

For the values of x = 1, 2, 3, we have:

y = f(x) = 2x

The following example allows us to analyze the function y = f ( x ) = x2 - 3 where the values of "x" are:
[-2,0,1,2]

Example

Instructions: analyze the following function and find the value of 'y' given the value of 'x'.

1. If f (x) = 3x + 5, the section that has the value of f ( -3 ) is:

A. 4
B. 14
-14
D. -4

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The solution to this problem is obtained by substituting the value of f(-3) in the equation f
(x) = 3x + 5 in the following way: f(-
3) = 3(-3) + 5
f(-3) = -9 + 5
f(-3) = -4

Function graph
Constant function Identity function
y=n f(x) = x

Linear function Affine function

y = mx y = mx + n

100
Quadratic function Rational function
f(x) = ax² + bx + c

Exponential function Logarithmic function

101
 Sine function

f(x) = sin x

Cosine function

f(x) = cosine x

Tangent function Cotangent function

f(x) = tan x f(x) = cotangent x

102
Secant function Cosecant function

f(x) = sec x f(x) = cosec x

Transcendental functions

Exponential Function:

An exponential function is one in which the independent variable x appears in the

exponent and has a constant a as base.

His expression is:

being a positive real number, a > 0, and different from 1, a ≠ 1.

When 0 < a < 1, then the exponential function is a decreasing function and when a > 1, it is
an increasing function.

103
The function is also commonly denoted as exp(x).

The exponential function can be considered the inverse of the logarithmic function.

And when 0 < a < 1:

104
Features
● Domain:
○ The domain is all real numbers.

Route:
The range is all positive real numbers.
● All exponential functions are continuous.
● If a is greater than 1 (a > 1), the function is increasing. On the other hand, if a is less than 1 (a <
1), the function is decreasing.

Exercise
Let the exponential function with a = 2, defined by the function:

Thefunctionit iscontinuesinall real numbers.

As 2 > 1, thethe function is increasing.
The graph of the function passes through the points (0, 1) and (1, 2).

105
Logarithmic function

A logarithmic function is formed by a logarithm of basea, and is in the form of:

beingaa positive real number, a > 0, and different from 1,a≠1.

When 0 < a < 1, then the logarithmic function is a decreasing function and when
If a > 1, then it is an increasing function.

The logarithmic function is the inverse of the exponential function. And,

when 0 < a < 1:

106
Characteristics

● Domain
The domain is all positive real numbers.
Route:
○ The range is all real numbers.
● If a is greater than 1 (a > 1), the function is strictly increasing. On the other hand, if a is less
For 1 (a < 1), the function is strictly decreasing.

107
Reason for changing functions

The concept of rate of change refers to the measure in which a variable is modified.
relationship to another. It is the magnitude that compares two variables based on their units of
change. In case the variables are not related, they will have a rate of change equal to
zero.

Average rate of change of f(x) over the interval [a, b]: Difference Quotient

The average rate of change of f(x) over the interval [a, b] is:

Δf f ( b )- f ( a )
Δx = b-a
The average rate of change is also called the difference quotient of f(x) during the
interval [a, b]. Its units of measurement are units of f(x) per unit of x.

Example

If f(x) = 2x24x + 1, then the average rate of change of f(x) over the interval [2, 4] is

f(4) - f(2)
4-2 =
Average rate of change=

17 - 1
= =8
2

Interpretation: If, for example, f(x) represents the benefits of your company (in millions of
dollars) and x represents the year since January 2003, then the units of measurement of the ratio
average change is millions of dollars per year. In this way, your company earned a
average benefit of $8 million per year during the period from January 2005 (t = 2) to January 2007 (t =
4).

108
Increasing and decreasing functions

INCREASING FUNCTIONS

A function is strictly increasing on an interval if for any two values

of the interval, and it is fulfilled that:

When we move to the right on the graph of a strictly increasing function

we also move upwards:

A function is strictly increasing at the abscissa point if there exists a positive number such that
what is strictly increasing in the interval.

From this definition, it is deduced that if it is differentiable at and strictly increasing at the point of
abscissa.

Decreasing function

A function is strictly decreasing on an interval if for two values

for any in the interval, y, it is fulfilled that:

When in the graph of a strictly decreasing function we move to the right

we also move downwards:

A function is strictly decreasing at the abscissa point if there exists some positive number such that
what is strictly decreasing in the interval.

109
3.- Geometry and trigonometry
a) Complementary and supplementary angles
Complementary angles are two angles whose sum is 90º. A common case is when
they form a right angle.
For example BXCy Find complementary angles in the following diagram:

Observe that BXD must be a right angle, because AXBes a right angle.

Supplementary angles are two angles whose sum is 180º. A common case is when...
they are on the same side of a straight line.
For example AXDy Find supplementary angles in the following diagram:

110
b) Angles between parallels and a secant
When drawing two lines, two situations can occur: the first is that they intersect at a point; the
secondly, that no matter how long they are prolonged, they do not come to unite.

Two lines that intersect at a point are called

secants

Two lines located in the same plane that do not intersect

parallel.

When cutting two lines with a secant, eight angles are formed, which are represented by
lowercase letters; these are classified into pairs according to their position with the
secant.

111
1. Interior consecutive angles: they are the angles that are found on the same side of the secant.
and within the lines.

The internal alternate angles are:

2. External alternate angles: they are those that are located on the same side of the secant and
outside the lines.

The external exterior angles are:

112
The alternate exterior angles are:

6. Opposite angles by the vertex: these are the ones that share the same vertex and are
They oppose each other.

The angles opposite the vertex are:

If the lines cut by the secant are parallel, the angles have the following relationships:

114
1. The consecutive angles are supplementary, that is, they sum up to 180º:

[Link] angles have the same measure, that is, they are congruent:

115
3. Alternate angles have the same measure, that is, they are congruent:

4. The angles opposite each other at the vertex are equal in measure, that is, they are congruent:

116
If a secant is drawn to two parallel lines and the measure of one of the angles is known, it is
it is possible to determine the measure of the others.

Observe the following example:

Since the consecutive angles are supplementary and the angles e and h are consecutive, then:

The corresponding angles are congruent, therefore:

so

The alternate angles are congruent, then:

Therefore:

117
c) Pythagorean theorem
In every right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is
equal to the sum of the squares of the legs (sides that make up the right angle).

To better understand this theorem, look at the following representation where the areas are related;

In any right triangle, the area of the square built on the hypotenuse is equal to the
sum of the areas of the squares built on the legs.

118
Example:

If a kite has gotten tangled in a 6-meter tall pole and the child who owned it has
left the spool on the ground 50 meters from it. How much thread does it lose if he cuts it?
First you can make a drawing with what the problem states;

To solve this exercise we can use the Pythagorean theorem in the following way;

119
d) Similarity of triangles
1-Similarity
Dopolygons are similar if they have the same shape, their angles are respectively
equal (congruent) and their proportional sides. That is, one of the polygons is a
enlargement or reduction of the other.

Example:

1.1 - Fundamental theorem for the existence of similar triangles

If we apply the fundamental theorem of similarity or Thales' specific theorem in

In a triangle, we can see that any line parallel to one side of a triangle determines two
similar triangles to each other, as their sides are proportional and their angles are equal.

120
Example:

Given a triangle ABC, if a segment DE is drawn parallel to side BC, another is obtained
triangle ADE, whose sides are proportional to those of triangle ABC.

It will then be said that triangles ABC and ADE are similar.

121
2-Criteria for similarity of triangles

To determine the similarity between any two polygons, they are decomposed into
triangles and verify similarity between the triangles they form.

They are called Similarity Criteria of two triangles, a set of conditions such that, if they are met.
They fulfill, we will have the assurance that the triangles are similar.

Those criteria or cases are:

a. Angle-angle criterion (AA):

Two triangles are similar if they have two angles that are respectively equal.
(congruent).

122
Consequently, the third angle is also equal.

b. Criterion Side - Angle - Side (SAS):

Two triangles are similar if they have two proportional sides and the angle is equal.
understood among them.

123
c. Side - Side - Side (SSS) Criterion:

Two triangles are similar if their three sides are respectively proportional.

[Link] Side - Side - Angle (SSA):

Two triangles are similar if they have two proportional sides and the angle opposite the larger one.
they are respectively equal.

124
Example

Triangles ABC and DEF are similar if AB = 6, BC = 12, DE = 10, and DF = 7.5.
Determine the value of AC + EF.

We draw the triangles and annotate the data, we designate AC = x and EF = y.

To solve this exercise, we can use the LLL similarity criterion of triangles.
so we will say that;

We replace with the data and solve for x and y separately;

We add;

Respuesta: AC + EF = 24,5.

125
Example

To prove that ΔABD ~ ΔEDC, what similarity criterion would you use? Justify.

A) LAL

B)AA

C) LLL

D) LLA

Justification:

I would use the Angle-Angle similarity criterion, since ∢ DCE = 90° - 30° = 60°
then it is fulfilled;

126
e) Regular polygons and the circle: areas and perimeters
Regular polygons (perimeter and area)

Regular polygons are those whose sides and their interior angles are equal. This
it means that all sides measure the same, just like the angles that form the joints
of these segments.

The perimeter of a regular polygon is the sum of all its sides. Like any regular polygon
it has all its sides equal, the perimeter will be the product of the number of sides of the polygon (N)
due to the length of one of them (L).

Perimeter = N x L, where N is the number of sides and L is one side.

The apothem of a regular polygon is a segment drawn from the center of the polygon (that is, the
center of the circle that circumscribes the polygon) to one side, so that this is perpendicular to
side.

The area of a regular polygon is calculated from its perimeter and its apothem. Let P be the polygon.
regular with N sides, its area is:

127
Círculo perímetro y área

The perimeter of a circle is the circumference and its value is equal to the diameter multiplied by pi.
Since the diameter is equal to two radii, it can also be said that the length of the
circumference = p x 2r

The ratio (division) between the perimeter and the diameter of a circle is called
of p (pi) and its approximate value is 3.14.

The area of the circle is equal to the value of its radius squared multiplied by pi = p x

r2

Example

128
f)Razones trigonométricas: seno, coseno, tangente, cotangente,
secante y Cosecante
Trigonometric ratios relate the measure of an angle to the sides of a triangle.
To do this, they rely on the right triangle, where we find two acute angles and
complementary (add up to 90°) and their sides are called legs and hypotenuse.

Triangle ABC is a right triangle at C with legs a and b, c is the hypotenuse, α and β are angles.

Acute angles. Each acute angle has an opposite side and an adjacent side.

Thus, the trigonometric ratios of an angle are defined as the ratio between the measures.
of the sides of a triangle.

129
Inverse trigonometric ratios: cosecant, secant and cotangent

In this section, we are going to define the inverse trigonometric ratios, that is, the ratios
inverse of sine, cosine, and tangent. Given a right triangle, we define it
cosecant, secant, and cotangent of an angle as the inverse ratios of sine,
cosine and tangent, respectively.

csc (x): the cosecant is the inverse of the sine (or its multiplicative inverse):

sec (x): the secant is the inverse of the cosine (or its multiplicative inverse):

cot (x): the cotangent is the inverse of the tangent (or its multiplicative inverse):

130
Obtaining sides or angles from the use of ratios
Trigonometric

a) A tree casts a 12 m long shadow. The angle at the top of the tree from the end
The angle of the shadow is 68°. Find the height of the tree.

data:

α= 68°

cateto adyacente= 12 m

cateto opuesto= x

With the data we have, we will use the tangent relation of the angle: tg 68° =

x
12
x = 12 tan 68°

x = 29.7 m

The tree measures approximately 29.7 m.

131
Marta and Rafael walk down the avenue separated by 100 m. Marta sees the left corner.
from the rooftop of a building with an elevation angle of 40º, and Rafael does it with a
angle of 70º. Find its height.

The problem presents us with this situation:

AD + DB = 100⇒ AD = 100–DB

The given sides correspond to the legs of triangles ΔADC and ΔBDC, rectangles at D. For the
So, we can calculate the tangents of the given angles:

We cleared DB in (2) and replaced it in (1), resulting in:

132
Trigonometric identities.

A trigonometric identity is an equality between

expressions that involve trigonometric functions and
what is true for all values of the variable (o
angle) in which they are defined. From the theorem
From Pythagoras, we can derive the identities.
fundamental or basic and from these others,
generally referred to as auxiliaries.

FUNDAMENTAL TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

Sine-Cosine Relationship

cos²α + sin²α = 1

SECANT-TANGENT RELATIONSHIP

sec²α = 1 + tg²α

COSECANT-COTANGENT RELATION

csc²α = 1 + cot²α

RECIPROCAL TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

COSECANT

cscα = 1 / sinα

SECANT

secα = 1 / cosα

COTANGENT

ctgα = 1 / tgα

133
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES OF THE DOUBLE ANGLE

sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α

2α= cos² α –sen²αtg2α=

2tanα / (1 - tan²α)

TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITY OF THE HALF ANGLE

sin(α/ 2) = ±√[(1 – cosα)/ 2]

cos(α/ 2) = ±√[(1+ cosα)/ 2]

tg(α/ 2) = ±√[(1 – cosα)/ (1 + cosα)]

TRANSFORMATION IDENTITIES OF

OPERATIONSTEPS FROM SUM TO PRODUCT

sin α + sin β = 2 sin [(α + β) / 2] cos [(α – β) / 2] sin α

- sin β = 2 cos [(α + β) / 2] sin [(α - β) / 2] cos α + cos

β = 2 cos [(α + β) / 2] cos [(α – β) / 2] cosα – cosβ = –

2 sin[(α+β)/ 2] sin[(α – β)/ 2] STEP OF

PRODUCT A SUM

sin α · cos β = 1/2 [sin (α + β) + cos (α - β)] cos α

· sin β = 1/2 [cos (α + β) + cos (α – β)] cos α · cos

β = 1/2 [cos (α + β) + cos (α – β)] sin α · sin β = –

1/2 [sin(α+β) - cos(α - β)]

134
g) Law of sines and law of cosines
Law of sines
The law of sines is the relationship between the sides and angles of non-right triangles (oblique).
Simply, it states that the ratio of the length of a side of a triangle to the sine of
The angle opposite to that side is equal for all the sides and angles in a given triangle.

In triangle ABC, which is an oblique triangle with sides a, b, and c, then

To use the law of sines you need to know either two angles and one side of the triangle (AAL or
ALA) on both sides and an opposite angle of one of them (LLA). Notice that for the first
from the two cases we use the same parts that you used to prove the congruence of triangles in
geometry but in the second case we could not prove thecongruent trianglesgiven those
parts. This is because the missing parts could be of different sizes. This is called the
ambiguous case and we will discuss it later.

135
Example 1: Given two angles and a non-included side (AAL).

DadoΔABCcon A = 30°, B = 20° y a = 45 m. Encuentre el ángulo y los lados faltantes.

The third angle of the triangle is C = 180°–A–B = 180°–30°–20° = 130°

By the law of sines,

By the properties of proportions

Example 2: Given two angles and an included side (ASA).

Dado A = 42°, B = 75° y c = 22 cm. Encuentre el ángulo y los lados faltantes.

The third angle of the triangle is: C = 180°–A–B = 180°–42°–75° = 63°

law of sines

For the properties of proportions

136
Law of Cosines
The law of cosines is used to find the missing parts of an oblique triangle (not
rectangle) when the measurements of two sides and the measure of the included angle are known
(LAL) or the lengths of the three sides (LLL) are known. In either of these cases, it is
impossible to use the law of sines because we cannot establish a proportion that can
to be resolved.

The law of cosines states:

c2= a2+ b2-2 ab cos C

This resembles the Pythagorean theorem except for the third term and if C is an angle.
the third term is equal to 0 because the cosine of 90° is 0 and the theorem is obtained
Pythagoras. Thus, the Pythagorean theorem is a special case of the law of cosines.

The law of cosines can also be stated as2= a2

+ c2-2ac cos Boa2= b2+ c2-2bc cos AEexample: Two

sides and the included angle - LAL

Dado a = 11, b = 5 y C = 20°. Encuentre el lado y ángulos faltantes.

To find the missing angles, it is now easier to use the law of sines.

137
4.- Analytic Geometry
Analytical geometry is a branch of mathematics that studies figures in depth.
their distances, their areas, points of intersection, angles of inclination, points of division,
volumes, etc. It is a deeper study to know in detail all the data they have
geometric figures.
Study geometric figures using basic techniques of mathematical analysis and algebra.
in a certain coordinate system. Its historical development begins with geometry
Cartesian, continues with the emergence of the differential geometry of Carl Friedrich Gauss and
later with the development of algebraic geometry.

a) Equations of the line

To enter into this subject and to understand what the Equation of the Line means is
It is essential to study, or at least review, what is related to Analytical Geometry and Plane.
cartesian

The idea of a straight line is one of the intuitive concepts of Geometry (as are also
the point and the plane ) .

The line can be understood as an infinite set of points aligned in a single direction.
Viewed on a plane, a line can be horizontal, vertical, or diagonal (inclined to the left or
to the right).

We can see the line on the right, but from the data that it provides us
line (coordinate pair for A and coordinate pair for B in the Cartesian plane) is
that we can find an algebraic expression (a function) that determines that same
straight.

138
The name given to the algebraic expression (function) that determines a given line
it is called Equation of the Line.
To understand this process, it's as if the same line just changes its clothes so that they know.
of its existence but expressed in mathematical terms (as an equation).

It is in this context that Analytic Geometry teaches us that a line is the

graphical representation of an algebraic expression (function) or linear equation of first degree
grade.

This equation of the line varies its formulation according to the data that is known.
a straight line that is to be represented algebraically. In other words, there are several
Ways to represent the equation of the line.

1.–General equation of the line

This is one of the ways to represent the equation of the line.

According to one of the postulates of Euclidean Geometry, to determine a line

a straight line only requires knowing two points (A and B) of a plane (in a Cartesian plane), with
abscissas (x) and ordinates (y).

Remember that it is essential to master all aspects of the Cartesian Plane because the
The equation of the line has no conceptual existence without a Cartesian plane.

Now then, with those two points known, all the lines of the plane, without exception, remain
included in the equation
ax + by + c = 0

and what is known as: the general equation of the straight line, as the affirming
next:

Theorem

The general first-degree equation Ax + By + C = 0, where A, B, C belong to thenumbers

real( ); and in which A and B are not simultaneously null, it represents a line
straight.

139
2.–Main equation of the line
This is another way to represent the equation of the line.

But before entering the main equation of the line, it is advisable to remember the following:

Each point (x, y) that belongs to a line can be represented in a system of

coordinates, where x is the value of the abscissa (horizontal) and y is the value of the ordinate (vertical).

(x, y) = (Abscissa, Ordinate)

Example: The point(-3, 5) has an abscissa of -3 and an ordinate of 5.

If a pair of values (x, y) belongs to the line, it is said that this point satisfies the equation.

Example: The point (7, 2) (the 7 in the x-axis and the 2 in the y-axis) satisfies the
equation y = x - 5, since when replacing it results in

2 = 7 - 5 which is true.

Recalling the above, let's now look at the equation of the line that passes only through one point.
known and whose slope (of the line) is also known, which is obtained with the formula

y = mx + n

which considers the following variables: a point (x, y), the slope (m), and the point of
interception on the ordinate (n), and it is known as the main equation of the line
(also known as simplified form, as we will see later).

When representing the equation of the line in its standard form, we see that two new ones appeared.
variables: lamy lan, this adds two new elements to our line equation that
must be considered when analyzing or representing a line: the slope (m) and the point of
interception (n) (also called intercept) on the y-axis
(y).

140
Regarding this, in the graph above, it represents theslope of the lineand allows to obtain
its angle of inclination (in relation to the horizontal or abscissa), and is the position coefficient,
the number that indicates the point where the line will intersect the y-axis.

Simplify the equation of the line

If the slope is known, and the point where the line intersects the y-axis is (0, b)
(corresponds to the main formula already seen), we can deduce, starting from the equation of
the line of the form

y−y 1= m(x−x1)

y - b = m(x - 0)

y–b = mx

y = mx + b

This is a second form of the main equation of the line (it is also called form
explicit from the equation) and it is used when the slope and y-intercept are known
(the intercept), which we will call b (let's not forget that it corresponds to a in the first form of
the main equation). This equation can also be used to find the slope and the
ordered at the origin from a given equation.

141
Example: The equation y = 4x + 7 has a slope of 4 and a position coefficient of 7, which indicates
that will intercept the y-axis at point (0, 7).

Known the formula of the main equation (simplified or explicit, as you want to call it)
From the line, it is possible to obtain the equation of any line as long as we are given at least
two of its variables: it can be the slope, it can be a point, or it can be the intercept.

This means that if you are given that information, an equation of the form y = can be obtained.
y = mx + b that meets those given conditions. Note that the equation is the form
generalized in the form mainly = mx + n; therefore, lab corresponds to the value of den(el
intercept in the y-coordinate.

Example 1:

Find the equation of the line that has a slope m = 3 and intercept b = 10.

We need to find the equation of the line, that is, y = mx + b.

We use the information we have:

m = 3yb = 10y we substitute into the equation

y = 3x + 10.

The equation requested is y = 3x + 10.

Note that this main form (simplified or explicit) can also be expressed as a
general equation:

y - 3x + 10 = 0, which we multiply by -1, resulting in

–y + 3x + 10 = 0, which we then rearrange to become

3x - y + 10 = 0

Example 2

Find the equation of the line that passes through the point (1, 2) and has a slope of m = -5. We have

to find the equation of the line, this is, y = mx + b.

142
We use the information: m = -5y, substitute it into the equation:

y = -5x + b

Now we have to find lab; we use the other data; the line passes through the point (1, 2), so
so, that point is a solution to the equation we are looking for. Those values are substituted
x = 1, y = 2 in the equation we are looking for: 2 = -5 (1) + b

We solve for the variable ben:

2 = -5 (1) + b

2 = -5 + b

2+5=b

b=7

We substitute the value in the equation we are looking for: y = -5x + 7

The equation in its main form (simplified or explicit) is y = -5x + 7. Which

we can also express it in its general form:

y = -5x + 7

y + 5x - 7 = 0

which we order and remains

5x + y - 7 = 0

Slope of a Line

Regarding the slope, it is necessary to know the following statements: The lines

Parallel lines have the same slope.

If a line has a slope of m = -3 and is parallel to another, then that other one also has
slope m = -3.

Perpendicular lines have opposite reciprocal slopes.

If a line has a slope m = -5 and is perpendicular to another, then that other one has a slope
1/5.

143
In addition:

If m = 0 the line is horizontal (parallel to the x-axis). If m = 0, the line is perpendicular.

The line passes through the origin.

Determine the slope

Having learned the above, it is very easy to find the equation of the line that passes through a point and has a
given slope, or to find the equation of the line that passes through two points.

If we are told, for example, that a line has a slope of 2 and passes through the point (1,
3), we just need to substitute these values into the main equation and it would give us:

3 = 2 ·1 + n

and clearing, they remain = 1.

Therefore, the equation of that line will be:

y = 2x + 1.

If we are told that the line passes through the point (1, 3) and (2, 5), we only need to substitute these
values in the main equation and we will obtain two equations with two unknowns:

3 = m ·1 + n

5 = m · 2 + n.

144
Now, let's look at the graph above: When there are two points of a line P1 (x1, y1)
For P 2 (x 2, y 2), the slope, which is always constant, is determined by the quotient.
between the difference of the ordinates of those two points and the difference of the abscissas of the
same points, that is, with the formula

So, from this formula of the pendulum, the

equation of the line, with the formula:

y–y1= m(x–x1)

This method of obtaining the equation of a line is usually used when the slope and are known.
the coordinates of just one of its points.

So, the equation of the line that passes through the point P1 = (x1, y1) and has the
the pending task is established as follows:

y–y1= m(x–x1)

Example

Find the equation of the line that passes through point A (2,–4) and has a slope of –1/3.

By substituting the data into the equation, the following results:

y - y1 = m(x - x1)

y - (-4) = -1/3(x - 2)

3(y + 4) =–1(x–2)

3y + 12 = -x + 2

3y + 12 + x - 2 = 0

3y + x + 10 = 0

x + 3y + 10 = 0

145
Returning to the general equation of the line (Ax + By + C = 0), in it the slope (m) and the
The position coefficients (n) are determined by:

Example: What is the slope and the position coefficient of the line 4x - 6y + 3 = 0?

Equation of the line that passes through two points

Sean P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) two points of a line. Based on these two points
Known points of a line make it possible to determine its equation.

For this, let us take a third point R(x, y), also belonging to the line.

Since P, Q, and R belong to the same line, PQ and PR must have the same
pending. I mean

y
Then, the equation of the line that passes through two points is:

which can also be expressed as

146
Example 1:
Determine the general equation of the line that passes through the points P(1, 2) and Q(3, 4)

y–2 = x–1

y-2-x+1=0

y-x-2+1=0

y-x-1=0

Example 2:
Determine the general equation of the line that passes through the points P1 (4, 3) and P2 (–3,
–2)
We know that the equation of the line that passes through two points is:
We replace the values:

-2 - 3 = y - 3

-3 -4 x–4

-5 = y - 3

7 times 4

y - 3 = x - 4 (5/7)

y - 3 = -5x + 20

-7

-7 (y - 3) = -5 x + 20

–7y +21 + 5x–20 = 0

5x - 7y + 1 = 0

147
Which corresponds to an equation of the general form
Ax + By + C = 0
Where

A=5

B=7

C=1

Line equation given point-slope (a point is known and the slope is known)
pending)
From what has been seen, and from the previous examples, we know that the equation of the line that passes through
two points is determined by

but

Then, if we substitute into the previous equation we obtain

clearing, we arrive at:

y–y1= m(x–x1)
Example:
Determine the general equation of the line with a slope of -4 that passes through the point (5,
-3)
y–y1= m(x–x1)

y - (-3) = -4(x - 5)

y + 3 = -4x + 20

y = -4x + 20 - 3

y = -4x + 17

Then the requested equation is 4x + y - 17 = 0.

148
b) Equations of the circumference
Circumference

Everyone knows circles, they know they can be drawn with a compass.

the following definition will turn out to be natural:

The circumference is the geometric place of the points in the plane that are equidistant from a fixed point.
called center.

Now we are going to deduce from this definition, what is the expression of a
circumference.

Let's consider the following scheme:

By the Pythagorean theorem we know that the points P (x, y) must satisfy this equation: (x–α)2+(y–

β)2=r2

149
What is called the ordinary equation of the circle with center C(α, β) and radius r if r = 0

, what geometric object does the equation represent?

Canonical equation of the circle

There is a particular case of a circle that has its center at the origin. The equation that it
The canonical equation of the circumference is defined as:

If the circumference is not centered at (0,0), it is possible to set up a new system in such a way that
that the center of the circumference coincides with the new origin of coordinates. For example
let's consider:

If we make a change of variables:

In the new variables, the equation is expressed in canonical form:

To obtain the canonical equation, we performed a translation of axes, so that the center of the
new system would coincide with the center of the circumference:

150
Example

Find the equation of a circle if the ends of one of its diameters are P (4,
-3) y Q (-2, 7)
Knowing the ends of a diameter, how would you find the center? And the radius?

151
Resolution

Since segment PQ is a diameter, the center is the midpoint of this segment. And the radius is
half the distance between P and Q:

152
So we already have the coordinates of the center, and we have the radius. We just need to replace.
in the ordinary equation to obtain the equation of this circle:

Lagrange's

From standard equation to general equation

Starting from the ordinary equation of the circumference, let us expand the squares of the binomial:

And now let's regroup the terms:

And let's rename the constants:

153
The equation is obtained:

called the general equation of the circle.

From general equation to ordinary equation

We have obtained from the ordinary equation, the general equation of a

circumference.

But given an equation that has this appearance:

If it is converted to the form of ordinary equation: will it always yield a

circumference?

To answer this, let's remember how to complete squares with an example.

Example

We are going to complete the squares in the following expression:

The question is: what geometric place does this equation represent? Are we sure that it is a
circumference? We will have to bring it to standard form.

The idea is to transform:

And also:

154
Let's start with x2- 4x
What is missing from this expression to be a perfect square trinomial? The term is missing.
independent. We know that the term independent must be half of 4, raised to the
square.
So we can add and subtract 2.2:

Now with the expression for the variable y:

We replace in the [1]:

And now we rearrange to obtain the equation of the circle:

What are the center and the radius?

Exercise for the reader 1

Completing squares, find the locus corresponding to each of the

equations:

Summary

155
From the resolution of the previous points, the conclusion we present is derived.
continuation:

156
c) Equations of the parabola
We know that theanalytic geometrystudy theforms orfigeometric gurasbasadasen
equations and coordinates defined on aCartesian Plane.

Well, a parabola is a geometric shape.

This geometric shape, the parabola, expressed as an equation, has a series of

elements or parameters that are basic for their description, and they are:

Vertex (V): Point of the parabola that coincides with the focal axis (also called the focus of the parabola).

symmetry).

Focal axis (or line of symmetry) (ef): A straight line that symmetrically divides the parabola.
arms and goes through the vertex.

Focus (F): Reference point, which does not belong to the parabola and is located at the
focal axis inside the arms of it and at a distance p from the vertex.

Directrix (d): A straight line perpendicular to the focal axis located at a distance p from the vertex.
and outside the arms of the parabola.

Focal distance (p): Parameter that indicates the magnitude of the distance between vertex and focus, thus
as vertex and guideline (both distances are equal).

Chord: Line segment that connects any two points belonging to the parabola.

Focal chord: Chord that passes through the focus.

Straight side (LR): Focal string that is perpendicular to the focal axis.

To illustrate the previous definitions, let's look at the following graph of a parabola:

157
In the Cartesian Plane, a parabola can have its vertex at any pair of coordinates.
it can be oriented upwards, downwards, to the left or to the right.

Equations of the parabola with vertex at the origin

First, we will study the equation of the parabola for the cases where its vertex
is at the origin (coordinates (0, 0) of the Cartesian plane), and according to this, we have
four possibilities of equation and each one is characteristic.

To begin our explanation, we will start with the parabola whose vertex is at the origin, its
the focal or symmetry axis coincides with the X axis (abscissas) and is oriented (opens)
to the right.

By definition, we know that in a parabola the distance between a point "P" (do not confuse
with the "parameter p"), any of the coordinates (x, y), and the focus "F" will be equal to the
distance between the directrix (D) and that point, as we see in the figure:

From the above it follows:

(line PD equals line PF)

The segment PD starts at the point (x, y) and ends at the point (–p, y) and we can use the
formula to calculatedistance between two points:

158
The line PF starts at point (x, y) and ends at point (p, 0), and we can also use it.
formula to calculate the distance between them:

Substituting in the distance expression result:

By raising both sides of the equation to the square and expanding, we have:

By simplifying similar terms and rearranging the expression, we obtain:

y2= 4px
What is the equation of the parabola in its ordinary or canonical form.

This equation has slight variations depending on the orientation of the parabola (towards where it is)
open)

Let's now look at the four possibilities:

First possibility

The one we already saw, when the parabola opens to the right (positive direction) in the axis of the
abscissas 'X'

Equation of the parabola y2= 4px

Equation of the directrix x+p=0

159
Second possibility

When the parabola opens to the left (negative direction) of the x-axis
X.

Equation of the parabola y2= 4px (con signo menos final)

Equation of the directrix x–p = 0

Third possibility

When the parabola opens upwards (positive direction) on the y-axis

Y”

Equation of the parabola x2= 4py

160
 Equation of the directrix y+p=0

Fourth possibility

When the parabola opens downwards (negative direction) on the y-axis.

Equation of the parabola x2= 4py (with negative sign at the end)

Equation of the directrix y–p = 0

161
Important information:

The parameter p (which marks the focal distance) indicates the distance between the focus and the
vertex, which is equal to the distance between the vertex and the directrix.

If in the equation of the parabola the unknown x is squared, it means that the
the curvature of it opens upwards or downwards, depending on the sign of the parameter
p.

When the parameter p is positive, the parabola opens 'upwards' and when it is
negative opens "downwards".

Now, if in the equation of the parabola the unknown y is squared, the curvature
it will be to the right or to the left. In this case, when the parameter p is
Positive, the parabola opens "to the right" and when it is negative it opens "to the left".
left

Length of the straight side (LR)

As we deduced the previous equation, it is possible to deduce the equation that allows us to calculate
the length of the straight side (chord that passes through the focus, perpendicular to the focal length or axis of symmetry):

We will not develop the path and will only say, to remember, that the straight side is equal to 4p.

Example:

Get the equation, the focus, and the directrix of the parabola with vertex at the origin and that
contains the point B(3, 4), and its axis of symmetry (or focal axis) is parallel to the X-axis.

Resolution:

Point B (3, 4) indicates that

X=3

Y=4

Substituting the coordinates of point B in the equation

162
Then the equation will be

And the Focus will be at the point 4/3, 0

We see that 4/3 corresponds to the value of p, and since the directrix is at the same distance from p.
regarding the vertex, but to the opposite side, then the directrix will be:

Equation of the parabola whose vertex is not at the origin

Now we will analyze the cases in which the equation that describes a parabola can be obtained.
whose vertex does not coincide with the origin of the coordinate system.

When the vertex of the parabola is located at any point, by convention placed in the
coordinates (h, k), and different from the origin, the equation that describes the parabola changes in
function of the position of this point and the opening orientation with respect to the axes x and y.

Due to these characteristics, we also have four possibilities of parabola equations.

whose vertex is outside the origin of the coordinate axis system.

163
First possibility

That the parabola opens to the right (positive direction) along the x-axis.

Equation of the parabola (y–k)2= 4p(x–h)

Equation of the directrix x-h+p=0

Second possibility

That the parabola opens to the left (negative direction) of the x-axis.

Equation of the parabola (y–k)2= 4p(x–h)

Equation of the directrix x–h–p = 0

164
Third possibility

Let the parabola open upwards (in the positive sense) of the y-axis.

Equation of the parabola (x–h)2= 4p(y–k)

Equation of the directive y-k+p=0

Fourth possibility

That the parabola opens downward (negative direction) of the Y-axis.

Equation of the parabola (x–h)2=–4p(y–k)

Equation of the directrix y–k–p = 0

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Remember that in all the previous cases the length of the straight side will always be LR = 4p.

Let's look at some examples:

Example 1:

Find the equation of the parabola with vertex at the point (3, 2) and focus at (5, 2).

Development

When analyzing the vertex coordinates (3, 2) and focus (5, 2), we see that their common ordinate is (y
= 2), so it is concluded that they are horizontally aligned and that the focus is at the
right of the vertex.

As we have already seen, in this case the resulting equation has the form (y-k)2

= 4p(x–h)

With the coordinates of the vertex (h, k), they are substituted into the equation and it results in: (y - 2)2=

4p(x–3)

Where the parameter represents the distance from the vertex to the focus, which we can calculate.
by the difference of the corresponding abscissas:

p = 5–3

p=2

Substituting:

(y–2)2= 4(2)(x–3)

Fall

(y–2)2= 8(x–3),

equation written in standard or canonical form.

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Example 2

Determine las coordenadas del vértice (V), del foco (F), la longitud del lado recto (LR) yla
equation of the directrix (D), in a parabola whose ordinary or canonical equation is (x + 6)2
-24(y - 2)

Development

Having x squared in (x + 6)2and being negative the term -24 we know immediately that
the parabola represented in the equation is vertical and opens downward (negative sense of the
(ordered).

Therefore, the form of that equation will be: (x–h)2-4p(y-k)

Now, if the vertex coordinates correspond to the values of h and k (+6, -2), and the
we replace in the given equation

We will have

Which gives us the coordinates of the vertex

V = (–6, 2)

Moreover, the data indicates that

–4p = –24

Which means that the length of the straight side (LR) is -24 and therefore

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So the focal length is 6 (equal to p).

The coordinates of the focus are obtained by the abscissa of the vertex (-6) and by the difference (the subtraction).
between the y-coordinate of the vertex (2) and the focal distance (6):

F = (–6, 2–6)

F = (–6,–4)

To determine the equation of the directrix, the known data is substituted.

y–k–p = 0y

–2–6 = 0

Solving the equation gives:

y-8=0

y=8

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d) Equations of the ellipse
The ellipse is the geometric locus of the points in the plane such that the sum of the
the distances to two points called foci are constant.

Now, it is important for you to know that the ellipse is formed by cutting a cone with a plane in such a way
inclined, and that also has certain elements and equations that you must
to master

HOW MANY ELEMENTS DOES IT HAVE:

A center -> C(h,k)

Two vertices -> The distance from one vertex to another is called the Major Axis

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Two extremes -> The distance from one extreme to the other is called Minor Axis

Two foci -> The distance from one focus to another is called the Focal Axis

A condition where it says that a > b and a > c

A straight side that is obtained as

The eccentricity must be less than zero,

To identify whether an ellipse is horizontal or vertical, you must look at the standard equation.
In the largest number (which is 'a', the condition is known).

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VERTICAL ELLIPSE

Center: C(h,k)

Vertices:

Extremes:

Focus:

Ordinary equation of the vertical ellipse:

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GENERAL EQUATION OF THE ELLIPSE
It is in the form:

where A and C must be different but with the same signs.

Example

Find the general equation of the ellipse with center at C(-2,4), a vertex at (-2,8) and with a focus
in (-2,6).

FIRST:

We identify what type of ellipse it is; in this case, it is a vertical ellipse (because the coordinate
x = -2 is fixed in the vertex and focus data), in addition, from the center which is (-2, 4), we deduce
that h=-2 and k=4.

Knowing that it is vertical, we compare.

with (-2,8), then we say that h=-2 and that k+a=8. The values that are already known are substituted.
what is k=4.

So, 4+a=8. Isolating the value of 'a', it turns out to be equal to 4 (a=4).

Now, we compare

with (-2,6), then we say that h=-2 and that k+c=6. We substitute the values that are already known,
what is k=4.

So, 4+c=6. Solving for the value of 'c' it is equal to 2 (c=2).

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SECOND:

In order to substitute into the ordinary equation of the vertical ellipse, one must know the values of
"h", "k", "a"y"b". Here, we just need to know the value of "b".

So, we use the condition of the ellipse, which states that

b is isolated and substituted:

THIRD:

It is substituted into the ordinary equation of the vertical ellipse and the operations are performed.
respective until equal to zero with positive "x":

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5.- Information Treatment
a) Probability and Statistics
Probability and Statistics are concerned with the study of chance from the point of view of
mathematics

● Probability proposes models for random phenomena, that is, those that
they can predict with certainty, and study their logical consequences.
● Statistics offers methods and techniques that allow understanding data from
models.

In this way, the Calculation of Probabilities is a mathematical theory and Statistics

it is an applied science where a concrete content must be given to the notion of
probability.

Statistics, population and sample.

Introduction

Statistics is the part of Mathematics that studies how to collect and summarize large
amount of information to draw conclusions. The population of a statistical study is the
set of elements subject to study. Each element is called an individual. When the
the number of individuals in the population is very large, we take a part of it, called
sample. The sample is a subset of the population and has to be representative of the
same.

What is population?

The statistical population, also known as the universe, is the set or totality of
elements that are going to be studied.

The elements of a population are made up of each of the associated individuals, due to
that share some common characteristic.

The statistical population can be a set of real people, places, or things.

For example, the teenagers of a town or the possible uses of sugar in cooking recipes.

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Since it is very complicated to conduct a study with all the elements that make up a population,
especially if it is considered an infinite population, a representative sample is taken from the
same to conduct the studies.

Types of populations

The population can be classified in the following way according to the number of individuals.
according to

● Finite population: it is one that can be counted and studied more easily.
its members. For example, the number of people registered in a gym.
● Infinite population: these are immense populations where it becomes very difficult to count.
its members, so typically only a portion of it is taken into account at the time of
conduct a study, thus selecting a sample. For example, the amount of grains
of sand on a beach.
● Actual population: they are groups of tangible members. For example, the number of animals.
in a zoo.
● Hypothetical population: they are possible populations that can be studied in the face of a
eventuality. For example, the number of premature baby births.

What is a sample?

The sample is a representative part of a population where its elements

they share common or similar characteristics.
It is used to study the population in a more feasible way, as it can be
easily account for. When a study is to be conducted on behavior,
Properties or likes of a specific total population are usually extracted from samples.

These studies conducted on the samples serve to create standards or guidelines that
They will allow actions to be taken or simply to learn more about the studied population.

The sample is a research tool that, when used properly, allows

obtain specific conclusions and avoid biased results.

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The main advantages of using samples are cost reduction, as it decreases
the elements to be studied and can be done in less time.

The most important factors when sampling are representativeness, so that

the elements have common qualities depending on the purpose, and the randomness at the moment
to select the elements to avoid a biased sample.

Types of samples

There are different types of techniques to form a sample.

Random Sampling

It is a technique that offers the same possibility to the elements of being selected,
for being taken at random. The types of random sampling are:

● Simple random sampling: the elements are chosen from a list at random. It works more
effectively when the universe is reduced and homogeneous.
● Systematic sampling: the first element is chosen at random and then the others are selected.
constant intervals the remaining elements.
● Stratified sampling: it is done by dividing the population into parts or strata.
They respond to established characteristics and then individuals are randomly selected.
what will be studied.
● Cluster sampling: the population is divided into heterogeneous groups and these to
they are further subdivided into homogeneous groups with common characteristics to be
studied according to the requirements of the researcher.

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Example 1.- Determine the population and the sample

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Descriptive statistics and statistical inference

What is descriptive statistics?

Descriptive statistics, also known as deductive statistics, is the branch of thestatistics that
is responsible for summarizing or reducing the amounts of long lists of values in the most
as precisely as possible, with the aim of having the general characteristics of a certain group.

In conclusion, this type of statistics is used to organize, display, and describe data from the
an easy and quick way. This generally uses graphics and tables to represent the
values and facilitate understanding.

Example of descriptive statistics

To better understand what descriptive statistics means, let’s consider the following example.

If a teacher wants to know the grades of their students, they can choose to use statistics.
deductive or descriptive, and calculate the grades by rounding the entire group.
This is how it obtains an exact number based on the grades that its students have achieved.
group, but doing it in an easy, comprehensible, and general way.

What is inferential statistics?

Inferential statistics or inductive statistics analyzes and studies data beyond its
results, that is, achieves conclusions using the provided data, but relying on
of probability calculation.

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In this way, inferential statistics manages to estimate the properties it has.
show [Link] it relies on the data provided by descriptive statistics, its
analysis and study is much broader.

In conclusion, it is responsible for analyzing and studying the data beyond the results of statistics.
descriptive in order to make decisions and make predictions.

Example of inferential statistics

In the case of this type of statistics, we can use the example of the professor.
mentioned earlier.

If the teacher also wants to know the grades of their students, in this case they can
opt for inferential statistics, by taking all the grades of your students, analyze and extract
accounts of each of them until concluding the exact qualifications of the entire group
students, but individually and in more detail.

Difference between descriptive and inferential statistics

ss

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Classification of variables, collection and organization of data.

Classification of variables

Unavoidable characteristics of the population under study, susceptible to taking

different values, which can be observed and measured.

Variables can be of two types: qualitative and quantitative. The variables

qualitative are further classified into nominal and ordinal, while the
Quantitative variables are further classified into discrete and continuous.

Qualitative variables: are those that cannot be measured numerically example:

nationality, skin color, sex, etc.

Qualitative variables can be:

Nominal: these are data that correspond to categories that by their nature do not allow for an order.
Por ejemplo: sexo (masculino y femenino); carrera de estudio: economía, contabilidad,
administration, etc.

Ordinals: they are those that correspond to subjective evaluations that can be ordered or
hierarchize. For example: in an artistic competition the positions of the winners are
they order or prioritize in first place, second place, third place, fourth place, etc.

Quantitative variables: these are those that have a numeric value such as age, the price of a
product, annual income of a consumer, etc.

At the same time, quantitative variables can be:

Discrete: these are those that can only take integer values like 1, 2, 8, -4, etc.
In this sense, the siblings in a family can be: 1, 2, 3..., etc. However, they can never be
be 1.5 or 2.3.

Continuous: those that can take any real value within an orange interval.
For example, the liters of milk milked can be 1.5 or 10.3, etc.

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Collection, organization, and presentation of statistical data.

From the very beginning, when we posed a problem or situation for study,
we must rely on the data that will provide us with the necessary statistical information
to achieve real results from the context.

In this unit, we will be dealing with processes inherent to the statistical method, which...
correspond to the organization and analysis of data. It is important to highlight that the ordering
it is very useful for addressing a conglomerate of data that complicates the processes
of analysis and interpretation.

The PROCESS OF COLLECTING statistical data can be carried out through

primary or secondary sources. In the former, the person or institution has collected
directly from the population data. While in the second case, the data is obtained from
publications and work carried out by other people or entities that have collected
directly the information.

Once the information from different sources is collected, a large amount of

data, which in turn require an organization through the classes or categories that determine
In a more summarized and organized way, the frequency and other data that will allow to reach
subsequent interpretations. The arrangement is made concrete through the distribution table.
of frequencies in classes.

To carry out the ORDERING PROCESS, the following steps must be followed:

A. Sorting: it consists of arranging the data in ascending or descending order.

numerical data collected from the statistical units.
B. Frequency role: once the data is ordered, it is determined how many times they are repeated.
data
C. Frequency table: in this last step, the table is created by distinguishing the classes,
frequency, the proportions and percentages of the information and based on them
they establish the conclusions of the study.

Once the ordering procedures and the frequency role are completed, it proceeds to
the preparation of the frequency table and for that we need to know:

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b) Measures of central tendency. (Arithmetic mean, Median and
Fashion).
Measures of central tendency are statistical measures that aim to summarize in a single
value to a set of values. They represent a center around which the
set of data. The most commonly used measures of central tendency are: mean, median and
fashion. The measures of dispersion instead measure the degree of dispersion of the values of the
variable. In other words, measures of dispersion aim to evaluate to what extent the
data differ from each other. In this way, both types of measures used together allow
describe a data set by providing information about its position and its dispersion.

The procedures for obtaining statistical measures differ slightly depending on

the way the data is organized. If the data is arranged in a table
statistically we will say that they are "grouped" and if the data is not in a table
we will talk about 'ungrouped' data.

According to this criterion, we will first study the statistical measures for data.
grouped and then for grouped data.

The arithmetic mean

The arithmetic mean is the most commonly used average or measure of central tendency.
It is calculated by summing all the observations of a data series and then dividing the total.
among the number of elements involved.

The algebraic expression can be described as:

To simplify the notation, the term is conventionally used:

donde:

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 arithmetic mean of the sample

sum of all values of Xi

Example:

In mathematics, a student has the following grades: 4, 7, 7, 2, 5, 3n = 6

(total number of data)

The arithmetic mean of the grades in that subject is 4.8. This number represents the average.

The median

The median is the middle value of an ordered sequence of data. If there are no ties, half of
the observations will be less and the other half will be greater. The median is not affected by
no extreme observation of a data series. Therefore, whenever it is present
extreme observation it is appropriate to use the median instead of the mean to describe a series of
datos.

To calculate the median of a series of data collected in its raw form, first
We must put the data in an orderly classification. Then we use the point formula.
positioning

To find the position of the ordered classification that corresponds to the value of the median,
one of the two rules is followed:

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 1. If the sample size is an odd number, the median is represented by
the numerical value corresponding to the positioning point, the observation
the ordered one is (n+1)/2.
2. If the sample size is an even number then the positioning point
falls between the two average observations of the ordered classification. The median is the
average of the numerical values corresponding to these two observations
media.

Example:

Se tienen los siguientes datos: 5, 4, 8, 10, 9, 1, 2

When arranged in ascending order, from smallest to largest, it is: 1, 2, 4,
5, 8, 9, 10
The 5 corresponds to the Median, because it is the central value in this set of odd data.

Fashion

The mode is the value of a series of data that appears most frequently. It is obtained
easily from an ordered classification. Unlike the arithmetic mean, the mode is not seen
affected by the occurrence of extreme values.

Example: The following values are the grades of a student throughout the year 7; 8; 9;

7; 9; 8; 8; 8; 7; 8

Podemosafirmarentonces que el modo es igual a 8, dado que es el valor que aparececon más
frequency.

Example:

Determine the mode in the following data set that corresponds to the ages of girls.
a kindergarten.

5, 7, 3, 3, 7, 8, 3, 5, 9, 5, 3, 4, 3
The most common age is 3, therefore, the Mode is 3 (Mo = 3)

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c) Probability
Sample space, event, and definition of probability

Definition of probability

Probability is simply how likely a certain event is to occur.

When we are unsure of the outcome of an event, we can talk about probability.
of certain results: how common they are to occur. To the analysis of the events governed by
Probability is called statistics.

The best example to understand probability is to flip a coin:

There are two possible outcomes: eagle or sun.

What is the probability of getting heads? We can find it by using the equation P(A) = ?
and perhaps, intuitively, you know that the probability is fifty-fifty, that is, 50%. But how
Can we solve this? Probability =

In this case:

Sample space

It is the set of all possible outcomes associated with an experiment. Its symbol is the
Greek letter Ω (omega). If the sample space has a finite number of elements or infinite
countable, then it is said that this is discrete and if the space

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the sample has as an element all the points of some real interval, then it is said that
this is continuous.

Example:

Experiment: throwing a die

Ω= { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

Event

It is any subset of a sample space. Every subset is an event, in particular

The same is an event called a certain event, and the empty set, Ø, is also an event.
event impossible. We will denote the events by the first letters of the alphabet in
uppercase letters: A, B, C, etc.

Representation of circular graphic probabilities.

Pastel graphic: consists of the representation of a circle divided into parts by means of
radius tracings and the circle represents the sum of the sets of the distribution of
100% reasons and each portion or part indicates a reason for beings; their formulas are:

● Angle=360° x f/n that is: Angle=360° times frequency divided by the total number of data.
● And its percentage is obtained by the frequency of the interval multiplied by 100 divided by the total number of
data, that is: %= fx100/n
● Note: it is traced counterclockwise.

EXAMPLE: In a survey conducted to find out which countries are the most populated, the results were obtained.
the following data.

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