ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR MANJULA DEVI P
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Module -1 Introduction to OB and Personality
MEANING AND DEFINITION OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Organizational Behaviour (OB) is the study of human behaviour in organizational settings, the
interface between human behaviour and the organization, and the organization itself.
Organisational behaviour is concerned with people’s thoughts, feelings, emotions, and actions
in a work setting. Understanding an individual behaviour is in itself a challenge, but
understanding group behaviour in an organisational environment is a monumental managerial
task.
Definition:
Organizational behaviour is directly concerned with the understanding, prediction, and control
of human behaviour in organizations.” — Fred Luthans.
Organizational behaviour is the study of both group and individual performance and activity
within an organization.
“The study of human behaviour in organisational settings, the interface between human
behaviour and the organisational context, and the organisation itself.”
The above definition has three facets – the individual behaviour, the organisation and the
interface between the two. Each individual brings to an organisation a unique set of beliefs,
values, attitudes and other personal characteristics and these characteristics of all individuals
must interact with each other in order to create an organisational setting. The organisational
behaviour is specifically concerned with work-related behaviour which takes place in
organisations.
Key Characteristics & Nature of OB
OB is typically described using these core features:
• Individual Uniqueness: Recognizes that each person brings unique personality traits,
learning styles, and values
• Contextual & Contingency Approach: One-size-fits-all solutions rarely work—
effective interventions must align with situational factors
• Goal-Oriented & Performance Focused: Aims to improve organizational
effectiveness, productivity, and employee satisfaction
• Humanistic & Ethical Outlook: Emphasizes the dignity, welfare, and moral treatment
of people at work. Ethics and social responsibility are integral
• Adaptability & Innovation: Encourages flexibility and creativity in organizations to
respond effectively to changing environments
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• Communication & Leadership Emphasis: Central to managing relationships, guiding
teams, and driving organizational vision and morale
• Well-being Orientation: Recognizes the importance of work-life balance, mental
health, and job satisfaction in enhancing performance
Relevance and importance of OB in modern organisations
Studying OB is crucial—both employees and managers gain insight into human behaviour to
foster job satisfaction, enhance performance, and drive organizational success. Managers who
can empathize, navigate conflict effectively, and motivate others consistently outperform
others.
Key Benefits in Modern Workplaces
1. Enhanced Employee Motivation & Satisfaction
OB principles help create environments where employees feel valued and motivated, directly
influencing morale and reducing turnover. Organizations applying OB frameworks often report
higher job satisfaction and improved engagement levels
2. Better Teamwork & Communication
Through the study of group dynamics and communication models, OB enables more cohesive
and effective collaboration. Teams understand roles, expectations, and processes better, leading
to smoother cooperation and higher output
3. Learning & Knowledge Sharing
Organizations that encourage learning and knowledge transfer cultivate continuous
improvement. Becoming a learning organization supports innovation, strategic adaptability,
and long-term competitive advantage
4. Organizational Culture & Climate
A strong, positive culture shaped through OB supports internal cohesion, drives performance,
and sustains competitive edges. Proper alignment between values and behaviors enhances team
morale, goal alignment, and innovation capacity
5. Strategic Adaptability (Ambidexterity)
OB fosters ambidextrous principles—balancing routine efficiency with exploration and
innovation. This enables organizations to remain adaptable while maintaining operational
excellence, essential in fast-evolving markets
6. Ethical & Human-Centric Management
By emphasizing ethics, human dignity, and social responsibility, OB promotes decision-
making that is compassionate and values-driven—improving trust, safety, and compliance
within the workplace.
Historical Evolution of OB
1. Classical Approach (1900s – 1930s)
The classical approach marked the early foundation of OB and focused primarily on efficiency,
productivity, and organizational structure. This period was dominated by the Scientific
Management theory of Frederick W. Taylor, who introduced time and motion studies to
optimize worker performance. Taylor believed that work could be studied scientifically and
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that workers should be selected and trained systematically. Around the same time, Henri Fayol
proposed the Administrative Theory, which emphasized principles of management like
division of work, unity of command, and scalar chain. Additionally, Max Weber’s
Bureaucratic Theory introduced the concept of an ideal organization based on a clearly
defined hierarchy, impersonal rules, and task specialization. While these classical theories
improved efficiency and standardization, they largely ignored human and social aspects of the
workforce.
2. Behavioral Approach / Human Relations Movement (1930s – 1950s)
The limitations of the classical approach led to the emergence of the human relations
movement, which shifted the focus from mechanics to people. This change was primarily
sparked by the Hawthorne Studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his team at the Western
Electric Company. These studies revealed that social factors, group dynamics, and worker
attention significantly influenced productivity, giving rise to the recognition of human needs
and motivation. Later contributions included Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, which
explained that individuals are motivated by a progression of needs, from basic survival to self-
actualization. Douglas McGregor further advanced this thinking with Theory X and Theory
Y, highlighting contrasting managerial assumptions: Theory X managers believe workers
dislike work and need control, while Theory Y managers believe workers are self-directed and
seek responsibility. This era marked the beginning of understanding employee motivation, job
satisfaction, and interpersonal relations in the workplace.
3. Modern OB (1960s – Present)
Modern organizational behavior developed with the integration of systems thinking,
contingency approaches, and behavioral sciences. The Systems Theory views the organization
as an open system composed of interrelated parts working together to achieve a common goal.
This approach emphasized feedback loops, adaptability, and the influence of the external
environment. The Contingency Theory, on the other hand, posited that there is no single best
way to manage; instead, effective management depends on the specific circumstances,
including the environment, technology, and individual differences. This era also witnessed a
significant contribution from psychology and sociology in understanding topics like
personality, motivation, leadership, group behavior, and communication. Organizations began
relying on research, empirical data, and analytical tools to make decisions related to human
behavior at work.
4. Contemporary OB (21st Century)
Contemporary organizational behavior continues to evolve in response to globalization,
technological advancements, and changing workforce expectations. The focus has expanded to
include areas such as emotional intelligence, organizational culture, employee engagement,
and ethical leadership. Daniel Goleman’s work on emotional intelligence highlighted the
importance of self-awareness and empathy in leadership effectiveness. There is also increased
emphasis on managing diversity, inclusion, and cross-cultural teams, especially as
organizations operate globally. The digital age has introduced new challenges and
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opportunities in OB, including the rise of remote work, virtual teams, AI-driven
workplaces, and concerns around work-life balance and employee well-being. Today’s OB is
dynamic and interdisciplinary, drawing insights from behavioral sciences, data analytics, and
technology to build resilient, ethical, and people-centered organizations.
Foundations of OB:
Organization Behaviour is based on a few fundamental concepts which revolve around the
nature of people and organizations. Such basic concepts are not specific to the field of OB. In
every field of social science or even physical science, has a philosophical foundation of basic
concepts that guide its development. There are certain philosophical concepts in organizational
behaviour also.
The fundamental concepts of organizational behaviour are;
• Individual Differences.
• Perception.
• A Whole Person.
• Motivated Behaviour.
• The desire for Involvement.
• The value of the Person.
• Human Dignity.
• Organizations are Social System.
• Mutuality of Interest.
• Holistic Concept.
1. Individual Differences
Every individual in the world is different from others. Science supports this idea. Each person
is different from all others, probably in a million ways, just as each’s DNA profile is different.
The idea of the individual difference comes originally from psychology. From the day of birth,
each person is unique, and personal experiences after birth tend to make people even more
different.
2. Perception
Peoples’ perceptions are also different when they see an object. Two people can differently
present the same object. And this is occurring for their experiences. A person always organizes
and interprets what he sees according to his lifetime of experience and accumulated value.
Employees also see work differently for differ in their personalities, needs, demographics
factors, past experiences, and social surroundings.
3. A Whole Person
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An employee’s personal life is not detached from his working life. As an example, A women
who attend the office at 9:00 AM is always anxious for her children’s school time (if her kids
can participate in the school or not). As a result, its impact falls on her concentration that means
her working life. For this reason, we cannot separate it. So, the manager should treat an
employee as a whole person.
4. Motivated Behaviour
An employee has so many needs inside him. So, they want to fulfil those needs. That’s why;
they had to perform well in the organization. Some motivations are necessary to enrich the
quality of work. A path toward increased need fulfilment is the better way to enhances the
quality of work.
5. Desire for Involvement
Every employee is actively seeking opportunities to work to involve in decision-making
problems. They hunger for the chance to share what they know and to learn from the
experience. So, the organization should provide them a chance to express their opinions, ideas,
and suggestions for the decision-making problem. A meaningful involvement can bring mutual
benefit to both parties.
6. Value of the Person
An employee wants to be treated separately from another factor of production, (land, capital,
labor). They refuse to accept the old idea that they are just treated as economic tools because
they are the best creation of the nature. For this, reason, they want to be treated with carrying
respect, dignity and other things from their employers and society.
7. Human Dignity
This concept is very philosophical. Every person needs to be treated with dignity and respect,
whether it’s the CEO of the company or labor. It confirms that people are to be treated
differently from other factors of production because they are of a higher order in the universe.
It recognizes human dignity because people are of a higher order; they want to be treated with
respect and dignity and should be treated this way.
8. Organizations are Social System
From sociology, we learn that organizations are social systems; consequently, activities therein
are governed by social laws as well as psychological laws. Just as people have psychological
needs, they also have social roles and status. Their behaviour is influenced by their group as
well as by their drives. In fact, two types of social systems exist side by side in organizations.
One is a formal system, and the other is the informal social system.
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9. Mutuality of Interest
Mutual interest is represented by the statement that organizations need people and people also
need organizations. Organizations have a human purpose. They are formed and maintained by
some mutuality of interest among their participants. People see organizations as a means to
help them reach their goals, while at the same time, organizations need people to help achieve
organizational objectives. If mutuality is lacking, it makes no sense to try to assemble a group
and develop cooperation, because there is no common base on which to build.
Mutual interest provides a super-ordinate goal that unites the variety of needs that people bring
to organizations. The result is that people are encouraged to attack organizational problems
rather than each other.
10. Holistic Concept
When the fundamental concepts of OB are placed together, a holistic concept emerges. This
concept interprets people-organization relationships regarding the whole person, the whole
group, whole organization, and the whole social system. It takes across the board view of
people in organizations to understand as many as possible of the factors that influence their
behaviour. Issues are analyzed in terms of the total situation affecting them rather than in terms
of an isolated event or problems.
Objectives of Organizational Behaviour
The organizations in which people work have an effect on their thoughts, feelings, and actions.
These thoughts, feelings, and actions, in turn, affect the organization itself.
Organizational behaviour studies the mechanisms governing these interactions, seeking to
identify and foster behaviours conducive to the survival and effectiveness of the organization.
1. Job Satisfaction.
2. Finding the Right People.
3. Organizational Culture.
4. Leadership and Conflict Resolution.
5. Understanding Employees Better.
6. Understand how to Develop Good Leaders.
7. Develop a Good Team.
8. Higher Productivity.
Emerging Challenges of Organizational Behavior (OB)
Organizational Behavior (OB) today faces a wide range of emerging challenges as the
business environment becomes increasingly complex, globalized, and technologically driven.
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Understanding these challenges is essential for managers and organizations to effectively lead
and adapt in a changing workplace.
1. Managing Workforce Diversity
One of the key challenges in OB is managing an increasingly diverse workforce. Diversity
today includes not only gender, age, and ethnicity, but also cultural background, educational
level, and work experiences. Organizations must ensure inclusion, equal opportunity, and
cultural sensitivity while avoiding unconscious bias. Failure to manage diversity can lead to
miscommunication, workplace conflict, and reduced team cohesion, whereas effective
diversity management can foster innovation and global competitiveness.
2. Technological Advancements and Automation
Rapid technological progress, including artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and
automation, has transformed workplace dynamics. While these technologies enhance
efficiency and decision-making, they also create challenges like job displacement, digital
fatigue, and the need for continuous skill upgradation. OB must now study how technology
influences employee engagement, communication, remote collaboration, and the psychological
effects of constant connectivity.
3. Globalization and Cross-Cultural Management
Globalization has led to organizations operating across multiple countries and cultures. This
expansion requires OB to address cross-cultural communication, leadership styles, and
differing work ethics. Managing geographically dispersed teams and understanding
international labor markets are essential. Cultural intelligence and sensitivity become critical
for avoiding misunderstandings and ensuring effective global teamwork.
4. Changing Employee Expectations
Modern employees seek more than just a paycheck—they value meaningful work, flexible
working conditions, personal development, and work-life balance. Generational differences,
especially with Millennials and Gen Z, have altered the traditional employer-employee
relationship. OB must now focus on employee engagement, well-being, mental health, and
intrinsic motivation to attract and retain talent.
5. Ethical and Social Responsibility Issues
Organizations are under increasing pressure to operate ethically and be socially responsible.
Ethical lapses can damage reputations and employee trust. OB faces the challenge of promoting
ethical decision-making, corporate transparency, and values-based leadership. Additionally,
employees now expect their organizations to contribute to environmental sustainability and
social justice causes, making ethics an integral part of OB.
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6. Managing Change and Organizational Transformation
In today’s volatile environment, change is constant—whether due to economic shifts,
technological disruptions, or crises like pandemics. OB must help organizations manage
resistance to change, maintain morale during transitions, and develop resilient organizational
cultures. Change management and adaptability are now core competencies for both managers
and employees.
7. Remote and Hybrid Work Models
The rise of remote and hybrid work arrangements brings challenges in communication,
performance monitoring, and maintaining organizational culture. OB must explore new ways
to foster trust, collaboration, and a sense of belonging in virtual settings. Managers must also
deal with challenges related to virtual fatigue, blurred boundaries between personal and
professional life, and equity among on-site and remote employees.
8. Leadership in the Digital Age
Leadership has taken on new dimensions in the digital era. Virtual leadership, emotional
intelligence, agility, and inclusive decision-making are more important than ever. Leaders must
be able to inspire and guide diverse, dispersed teams while adapting to rapid change. OB plays
a crucial role in identifying effective leadership traits and behaviors for the modern workplace.
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
Every individual is different from each other, as the behaviour of the human is considered as
the most complex one. There are various challenges in an effective organization that could
directly or indirectly affect the behaviour of the employees.
Factors affecting the individual behaviour:
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(Source: Organisational Behaviour, By, K Ashwathappa)
A. Personal factors – The personal factors that can influence the behaviour of an individual is
can be a Biographic factor or a Learned characteristic.
Biographic Characteristics – Every human being have certain type of characteristics which
are inherited and genetic in nature. These characteristics cannot get changed. They include
Physical Characteristics of the individual. They are:
1. Age– It is the inherited characteristic of an individual. In increasing performance, it
is considered as an issue. Young people are expected to behave more energetic, adventurous,
innovative, risk taking and ambitious. With the advancement in age, performance of a person
is more likely to decline.
2. Gender – It is a genetical feature. This concept has initiated lots of discussion,
debates and opinions. It is a traditional view that women are more emotional. A small
difference between men and women can affect their job performance. Without any male-female
differences, some of the people have competitive drive, leadership, motivation, learning ability,
analytical skills or problem-solving ability.
3. Religion– In determining some of the aspects of individual behaviour, religion and
its related cultures plays a significant role especially that have the basic concern with ethics,
morals and code of conduct. It also helps in identifying the attitude of an individual towards
their work and financial management incentives.
4. Marital Status – A recent research says that the responsibilities of the person
inclined with their marital status and it has become difficult to s6table in a particular job for
the longer period of time. Employees that are married have fewer absences, more job
satisfaction and fewer turnovers.
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5. Education– This has its effect upon individual behaviour, largely through the level
and type of education received. Increased level of education serve to increase an individual
expectations about positive outcomes.
6. Emotional Intelligence- This is concerned with an individual’s emotional and social
skills. Emotional Intelligence helps us monitor and shape our emotional responses and those
of others.
B. Psychological factors – Learning is defined as a permanent change in the behaviour of an
employee that results in the interactions with the environment. The biographical features of a
person are impossible to modify. Therefore, the managers of the organization paid a great
interest in learning, studying and predicting the learned characteristics that include:
(1)Personality– Personality does not only lie with the physical appearance of the
person. A person with a good personality comprised of smart person, smiling face and
charming personality. This concept is considered as dynamic that describes the growth and
development of the psychological system of the person. It is also refereed as personal traits or
characteristics that include persistence, dominance, aggressiveness and other qualities that is
reflected through the behaviour of the person within the organization.
(2)Perception– It is the viewpoint that helps in the interpretation of some situation.
Also, it is considered as the process which allows the information to enter in the minds and
allowed to obtain sensible meaning for the whole world.
(3)Values – Values are considered as the global belief that instructs different judgments
and actions across various situations. It consists of an individual’s idea based on the right, good
and desirable opinions. It is closely embedded in the people who could be reflected through
their behaviour. Also, most of time values are directly influenced from the teachers, parents,
friends and various other external factors that completely changed the ideas, opinions and
thoughts of the person. For an organizational behaviour, values are very significant. It helps in
understanding the motivation and the attitude of an individual along with the influences of their
perceptions or view point.
(4) Attitude – It is the way one feel about something or someone, or
a particular feeling or opinion. Behaviour is greatly influenced by the attitude of the individual.
C. Environmental Factors – On the behaviour of a person, the external environment plays a
significant role.
1. Economic Factors – In an economic environment, the behaviour of an individual is largely
affected due to certain factors including:
(a)Employment Level – The employment opportunities available to an individual
directly influence the behaviour of an individual. Even after the lack of job satisfaction, the
individual have to stick to the same job as there are less job opportunities for him/her. In such
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cases, it is important that they may be loyal to the company in providing better productivity;
they are only remaining in the same organization due to the monetary benefits offered to them.
(b)Wage Rates – Every employee is majorly concern with the wages offered to them
by the company or the organization. The decision of a worker or an employee is directly
affected by the monetary terms from the side of the company.
(c)General Economic Environment – There are various employees that does not have
any effect of economic cycle whether in a public sector undertakings or government offices.
Regardless of their economic position within the organization, they will receive their salaries.
Employees in the private sectors are greatly affected by the stable income and job security but
the former employees can be motivated from other factors.
2. Social norms and cultural environment- social and cultural environment is made up of the
institutions and other forces that affect societies basic values, perceptions, work ethics and
behaviours. People grow up in a particular society that shapes their basic beliefs, values and
behaviours. Culture varies from place to place and these variations result in different
behaviours across places.
3. Ethics and social responsibility- Ethics refers to a system of moral principles. – a sense of
right or wrong, good and badness of actions and motives and the consequences of these actions.
Social responsibility also called as corporate social responsibility is understood as the
obligation of decision makers to take actions that protect and improve the welfare of the society
as a whole along with their own interest. An employee working in such organisation known
for social consciousness tends to develop similar characteristics.
4. Political: The political stability, orientation of the leaders, ideology followed by the ruling
parties etc. also has an impact on the behaviour of the people in the society.
D. Organizational Factors – With wide variety of resources and organizational systems,
individual behaviour is influenced that includes:
1. Physical Facilities – At a workplace, the physical environment is considered as an
arrangement of people and things positive that could also create influence on other people.
There are certain factors that influence the behaviour of an individual including cleanliness,
light, ventilation, noise level, nature of job, number of people working, etc.
2. Structure and Design – The way in which every department of the organization is set-up
has direct concern with the structure and design. The performance and the behaviour of an
individual is directly influenced by the position at which person could perfectly fits in the whole
organizational hierarchy.
3. Leadership – The management of the organization establish the system of leadership so that
the proper assistance, advice, guidance, direction and coaching could be given to the
individuals. The behaviour of each employee is influenced to the large extent to the behaviour
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of the leaders or the superiors of the same organization. The behaviour of the leaders is more
important than the qualities of the leaders.
4. Reward System – The performance and the behaviour of individuals are directly influenced
by the reward system that is established by the organization so that the employees could be
able to compensate.
PERSONALITY
Meaning:
The term personality refers to the set of traits and patterns of thought, behaviour, and feelings
that makes an individual.
In simple terms Personality includes the different qualities of a person’s character that make
him/her different from other people It describes how an individual affects others, how he
understands himself and his pattern of internal as well as external measurable traits.
Definitions:
“Personality is the relatively stable set of psychological attributes that distinguish one “person
from another.” — Lawerence Ervin
“Personality refers to the relatively stable pattern of behaviours and consistent internal states
that explain a person’s behaviour tendencies.” — RT Hogan.
“Personality is the sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others.” —
Stephen P. Robbins
Determinants of Personality
(Source: Organisational Behaviour, By, K Ashwathappa)
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1. Heredity / Biological Factors
The study of the biological contributions to personality may be studied under three heads:
a) Heredity
Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. Physical stature, facial
attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and
biological rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be inherent from one’s parents.
The heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality is the
molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes.
b) Brain
The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role that the brain plays in personality.
The psychologists are unable to prove empirically the contribution of the human brain in
influencing personality.
Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) research give
an indication that a better understanding of human personality and behaviour might come
from the study of the brain.
c) Biofeedback
Until recently, physiologists and psychologists felt that certain biological functions such as
brainwave patterns, gastric and hormonal secretions, and fluctuations in blood pressure and
skin temperature were beyond conscious control.
Now some scientists believe that these involuntary functions can be consciously controlled
through biofeedback techniques. In BFT, the individual learns the internal rhythms of a
particular body process through electronic signals that are feedback from equipment that is
wired to the body.
d) Physical Features
A vital ingredient of the personality, an individual’s external appearance, is biologically
determined. The fact that a person is tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white will influence
the person’s effect on others and this in turn, will affect the self-concept.
2. Family Factors
Whereas the culture generally prescribes and limits what a person can be taught, it is the family,
and later the social group, which selects, interprets and dispenses the culture. Thus, the family
probably has the most significant impact on early personality development.
A substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the overall home environment
created by the parents, in addition to their direct influence, is critical to personality
development.
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3. Social and Cultural Factors
There is increasing recognition given to the role of other relevant persons, groups and
especially organisations, which greatly influence an individual’s personality. This is commonly
called the socialization process.
Socialization involves the process by which a person acquires, from the enormously wide
range of behavioural potentialities that are open to him or her, those that are ultimately
synthesized and absorbed.
Socialization starts with the initial contact between a mother and her new infant. After infancy,
other members of the immediate family – father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or friends,
then the social group: peers, school friends and members of the work group – play influential
roles.
Among the factors that influence personality formation is the culture in which we are raised,
early conditioning, norms prevailing within the family, friends and social groups and other
miscellaneous experiences that impact us.
The culture largely determines attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition,
cooperation and a host of other human responses.
4. Situational Factors
Human personality is also influenced by situational factors. The effect of the environment is
quite strong. Knowledge, skill and language are obviously acquired and represent
important modifications of behaviour.
An individual’s personality, while generally stable and consistent, does change in different
situations. The varying demands of different situations call forth different aspects of one’s
personality.
Theories of Personality
Personality refers to the unique and relatively stable patterns of thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors that characterize an individual. Understanding personality is essential in
Organizational Behavior (OB) as it influences work performance, leadership, teamwork, and
conflict resolution. Over the years, several theories have emerged to explain personality, each
offering different perspectives and insights.
1. Type Theory
Type theory suggests that people can be classified into distinct personality types based on
certain traits. One of the earliest models was proposed by Carl Jung, who categorized
individuals as introverts or extraverts and further classified them based on their preferences in
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thinking, feeling, sensing, or intuition. This theory laid the foundation for the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI), which identifies 16 personality types by combining preferences
across four dichotomies (e.g., introversion vs. extraversion). While popular in HR and team-
building contexts, critics argue that the MBTI lacks strong empirical support and oversimplifies
personality.
2. Trait Theory
Trait theory focuses on identifying specific, measurable traits that make up an individual's
personality. One of the most well-known frameworks is the Big Five Personality Traits
model, which includes:
• Openness to Experience (creative, curious),
• Conscientiousness (organized, dependable),
• Extraversion (sociable, energetic),
• Agreeableness (compassionate, cooperative), and
• Neuroticism (anxious, emotionally unstable).
This theory is widely accepted in psychology and OB due to its strong empirical
backing. It is used in recruitment, leadership studies, and understanding work behavior.
3. Psychoanalytic Theory
Developed by Sigmund Freud, this theory emphasizes the influence of unconscious motives
and childhood experiences on personality development. Freud proposed that personality is
structured into three parts:
• Id (instinctual desires),
• Ego (rational self), and
• Superego (moral standards).
Although this theory is more prominent in clinical psychology than OB, its concept of
unconscious drives influencing behavior can still be useful in understanding workplace
dynamics, conflicts, and stress.
Sheldon’s Physiognomy Theory of Personality (Somatotype Theory)
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William H. Sheldon, an American psychologist and physician, proposed the Somatotype
Theory of personality in the 1940s. His theory is based on the idea that an individual’s body
type (physique) is closely linked to their personality traits. This approach is an example of a
physiognomic theory, which assumes that physical appearance reflects inner character.
Sheldon identified three primary body types, or somatotypes, each associated with a specific
set of personality characteristics:
1. Endomorph
• Physical Traits: Soft, round body with a higher proportion of body fat; wide hips and
narrow shoulders.
• Personality Traits: Relaxed, sociable, comfort-seeking, and emotionally responsive.
Endomorphs are often described as fun-loving and tolerant but may also be more
indulgent or dependent.
• Temperament: Viscerotonic – characterized by love of food, comfort, and people;
sociable and outgoing.
2. Mesomorph
• Physical Traits: Muscular, strong, and athletic build; broad shoulders and narrow waist.
• Personality Traits: Energetic, assertive, courageous, competitive, and adventurous.
Mesomorphs are typically active and dominant, with a tendency toward leadership and
risk-taking.
• Temperament: Somatotonic – bold, assertive, and action-oriented.
3. Ectomorph
• Physical Traits: Slim, fragile, and linear body structure; little body fat or muscle.
• Personality Traits: Introverted, thoughtful, sensitive, artistic, and self-conscious.
Ectomorphs tend to avoid crowds and enjoy intellectual or solitary activities.
• Temperament: Cerebrotonic – quiet, restrained, and introspective.
Traits of Personality
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ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR MANJULA DEVI P
MANGALORE UNIVERSITY ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
GFGC BETTAMPADY
Personality Traits are characteristics and qualities that help define an individual as a unique
person. They are often developed throughout life and may remain consistent across many
situations and circumstances.
There are many different personality traits, but some are more important ones for organisational
behaviour. They are as follows:
(Source: Organisational Behaviour, By, K Ashwathappa)
1. Authoritarianism
According to Adorno, “This concept refers to a belief that there should be status and power
differences among people in organisations.” Authoritarians tend to place high moral value on
their beliefs and are strongly oriented towards conformity of rules and regulations. They
naturally prefer stable and structured work environments which are governed by clean rules
and procedures.
Further, they believe obedience and respect for authority and blind acceptance of authority.
These people are generally conservatives concerned with toughness and power, are close
minded and generally less educated. But because of their belief in acceptance of authority they
make good followers, work better under directive supervision and are more productive within
authoritarian organisational structure.
2. Locus of control
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ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR MANJULA DEVI P
MANGALORE UNIVERSITY ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
GFGC BETTAMPADY
Locus of control refers to an individual’s belief that events are either within one’s control
(Internal Locus of Control) or are determined by forces beyond one’s control. Some people
believe that they are the masters of their own fate. Other people see themselves as pawns of
fate, believing that whatever happens to them in their lives is due to their luck or fate. The first
type is labelled as internals and the latter has been called externals. A person’s perception of
the source of his or her fate is termed locus of control.
3. Machiavellianism
The term Machiavellianism is derived from the writings of Nicolo Machiavelli, refers to
individual’s propensity to manipulate people. Machiavellians would be prone to participate in
organisational politics. They are also adept in interpersonal game playing, power tactics and
identifying influence system in organisations.
4. Introversion and Extroversion
These are the most common descriptions of personality traits. These two terms are generally
associated with* the interpersonal behaviour of an individual and his sociability. Extroverts are
gregarious and sociable individuals while introverts are shy, quiet and retiring. It has been
observed that introverts and extroverts have different career orientations and require different
organisational environment to maximize performance. Extroverts are more suitable for
positions that require considerable interaction with others that is why managerial positions are
dominated by extroverts.
Thus, we can say that to be an extrovert is a managerial trait to be a successful manager. On
the other hand, introvert people are more inclined to excel at tastes that require thought and
analytical skill. An extreme introvert works best alone in a quiet office without external
interruption or influence.
5. Achievement Orientation
Achievement orientation or a high need to achieve is a personality trait which varies among
different types of people and can be used to predict certain behaviour. The people with very
high achievement orientation strive to do things in a better way. They want to feel that their
success or failure is due to their own actions. These people do not like to perform easy tasks
where there is no challenge or tasks with very high amount of risk as the failure rate is more.
These people like to do the acts with moderate difficulties, so that they can have a sense of
achievement also and on the other hand the failure rate is also not very high. Or in other words,
achievers will like to do the jobs where the outcome is directly attributed to their efforts and
chances of success are so-so. The high achievers will do better in sports, management and sales
where there is moderate difficulty, rapid performance feedback and direct relationship between
effort and reward.
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ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR MANJULA DEVI P
MANGALORE UNIVERSITY ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
GFGC BETTAMPADY
6. Self Esteem
Self Esteem refers to the feeling of like or dislike for oneself. Self Esteem is the degree of
respect a person has for himself. This trait varies from person to person as people differ in the
degree to which they like or dislike one self. Self esteem is directly related to the desire for
success. People with high self esteem believe that they have abilities to undertake challenging
jobs. They tend to choose unconventional jobs than those with low self-esteem.
People with low self esteem are more susceptible to external influence than those with high
esteems. Self esteem is also related to job satisfaction. High esteems are more satisfied with
their jobs than low esteems.
7. Risk Taking
People differ in their willingness to take chances. The propensity of people to assume risks or
avoid risks varies from person to person depending upon the willingness of the people to take
chances. This human trait will affect the decision-making capability of a manager. This
individual personality trait will determine how long will it take a person to take a decision or
how much information will be needed before he takes a decision.
Some people are very conscious in nature, while the others are impulsive. An impulsive person
is a high-risk taking manager; he will make rapid decisions and use less information in making
their choices than a very conscious and low risk-taking manager. But the research shows that
the decision accuracy is generally the same in both the groups.
8. Self-monitoring
Self-monitoring refers to an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behaviour to external
factors. Individuals with high self monitoring can show considerable adaptability in adjusting
their behaviour to external situational factors. They are highly sensitive to external cues and
can behave differently in different situations. High self-monitors are capable of presenting
striking contradictions between their public, personal and private selves. Low self-monitors
can not deviate their behaviour. They tend to display their true dispositions and attitude in every
situation, hence there is a high behavioural consistency between who they are and that they do.
9. Type A and Type B personality
People who are impatient, aggressive and highly competitive are termed as ‘Type A’
personality. But those who are easy going, laid back and non-competitive are termed as ‘Type
B’ personality. Type ‘A’ people tend to be very productive as they work very hard. Their
negative side is that they are very impatient, good team players, more irritable and have poor
judgment. Type ‘B’ people do better on complex tasks involving judgment and accuracy rather
than speed and hard work.
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ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR MANJULA DEVI P
MANGALORE UNIVERSITY ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
GFGC BETTAMPADY
How do the two perform in organisations? Type As are no doubt highly competitive and
hardworking, but it is Type B who climb to the top of the organisation. May be because Type
As tend to compromise quality for quantity. To reach the top ladder it requires to be more
creative and patient rather than being more agile in competitive stive and hasty.
Difference between Type A and Type B
Type A Type B
1. Are always moving, walking and 1. Never suffer from a sense of time
eating rapidly urgency with its accompanying
impatience
2. Feel impatient with the rate at which
most events take place 2. Feel no need to display or discuss
either their achievements or
3. Strive to think or do two or more accomplishments unless such
things at once exposure id demanded by the
situation.
4. Cannot cope with leisure
3. Play for fun and relaxation, rather
5. Are obsessed with numbers, than to exhibit their superiority at any
measuring their success in terms of cost
how much of anything they acquire
4. Can relax without guilt
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