MDC notes

Unit III & Unit IV

Basic facts about the earth: The Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only known

planet in the Solar System that supports life. Scientists estimate that it formed about 4.5 billion

years ago from a large cloud of gas and dust called the solar nebula, which remained after the

Sun was formed. During its formation, tiny particles collided and stuck together through a

process called accretion, gradually forming larger bodies. At the same time, differentiation

occurred, where heavier elements like iron and nickel sank toward the centre to form the core,

while lighter materials such as silica and aluminium floated upward to form the crust. This

process created the Earth’s layered internal structure, consisting of the crust, mantle, outer

core, and inner core, each with distinct composition and properties.

The Earth’s surface is about 510 million square kilometers, of which 71% is covered by water

in oceans, seas, rivers, and lakes, and 29% is land, including continents and islands. The oceans

contain 97% of the Earth’s water, with the remaining 3% in glaciers, rivers, lakes, groundwater,

and the atmosphere. Earth is an oblate spheroid, meaning it is slightly flattened at the poles

and bulges at the equator due to its rotation. Its diameter is about 12,742 km at the equator

and 12,714 km at the poles.

The Earth rotates on its axis once every 24 hours, causing day and night, and revolves around

the Sun in about 365.25 days, which forms one year. This tilt of 23.5 degrees in its axis is

responsible for the seasons. The gravitational force of the Earth keeps the atmosphere,

oceans, and all living beings in place. The planet also has a magnetic field, generated by the
 movement of molten iron in the outer core, which protects life from harmful solar radiation

and helps in navigation.

Geomorphic processes are natural forces and actions that shape the Earth’s
surface and

create different landforms. These processes are responsible for forming mountains,
valleys,

plateaus, plains, rivers, and coastal features. They are mainly of two types: endogenetic
(internal) processes, which originate from inside the Earth and build up or deform landforms,
and exogenetic (external) processes, which occur on the surface and wear down or reshape
the land.

The Earth’s surface is constantly changing because of natural forces that either build up
landforms or wear them down. These forces are grouped into two main types:
endogenetic

(internal) processes and exogenetic (external) processes. Understanding these

processes
helps us see how mountains, valleys, plains, and other landforms are formed and
modified

over time.
 Endogenetic processes are forces that come from inside the Earth. They are driven by the
Earth’s internal heat, pressure, and movements of the crust. These processes can create new
landforms or change existing ones. They may occur suddenly, like in an earthquake
or volcanic

eruption, or slowly over millions of years, like in the formation of mountain ranges.
Common

examples of endogenetic processes include earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and

folding or

faulting of rocks. Earthquakes cause sudden shaking of the ground, volcanoes

erupt magma

that forms mountains, and folding or faulting bends or breaks rock layers to form
hills and

valleys.

On the other hand, exogenetic processes take place on the Earth’s surface. They
are caused

by external forces such as wind, water, ice, and gravity. Exogenetic processes
mainly wear

down or reshape existing landforms rather than creating new ones. They usually
act slowly

but continuously over long periods. Examples include weathering, erosion, and
deposition.

Weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces, erosion removes rocks and soil, and
deposition

lays down sediments to form features like river deltas, floodplains, and sand dunes.

In simple terms, endogenetic processes are internal forces that build or deform the
 Earth,

while exogenetic processes are external forces that wear down and shape the
surface. Both

types of processes work together, ensuring that the Earth’s surface is dynamic, always
changing, and evolving over time.

Weathering
 Weathering is the natural process by which rocks and minerals on the Earth’s surface break
down into smaller pieces due to the action of natural forces such as temperature changes,
water, air, and living organisms. Unlike erosion, weathering occurs in place, meaning the rocks
do not move from their original location. It is a vital process because it helps in shaping the

Earth’s surface, forming soil, and providing raw materials for other geological processes. The
rate and type of weathering depend on factors like the rock type, climate, temperature
variations, rainfall, and vegetation cover.

Physical or mechanical weathering occurs when rocks are broken down into smaller
fragments without any change in their chemical composition. Temperature changes, frost
action, and pressure release are the main causes. In areas with hot days and cold nights, rocks
expand during the day and contract at night, creating cracks that eventually split the rock. In
cold regions, water enters cracks in rocks and freezes, expanding and widening the cracks over
time. Exfoliation occurs when overlying rocks are removed, reducing pressure on the
underlying rocks and causing their outer layers to peel off. Physical weathering produces small
particles such as sand, gravel, or rock fragments.

Chemical weathering involves the decomposition or alteration of minerals in rocks due to

chemical reactions with water, air, or acids. It is more active in warm and humid climates.
Oxidation occurs when iron- bearing minerals react with oxygen to form rust, weakening the
rock. Carbonation happens when rainwater absorbs carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid,
which reacts with limestone and slowly dissolves it, leading to features like caves and
sinkholes. Hydration involves the absorption of water into minerals, causing expansion and
softening of rocks, while solution dissolves soluble minerals such as salt and gypsum. Chemical
weathering changes the composition of rocks and produces new minerals like clay.

Biological weathering is caused by living organisms such as plants, animals, and

microorganisms. Plant roots can grow into rock crevices, exerting pressure that splits the rocks
apart. Burrowing animals, like rodents and insects, disturb the soil and rocks, exposing them
to air and water for further breakdown. Microorganisms, lichens, and mosses release weak
acids that chemically react with rock surfaces, slowly dissolving minerals. Although biological
weathering is generally slow, it plays a significant role over long periods, especially in areas
with dense vegetation.

In conclusion, weathering is a continuous and essential process that transforms rocks into
smaller fragments and soil. It shapes landscapes, contributes to soil fertility, and provides
materials for erosion and deposition. Together, physical, chemical, and biological weathering
ensure the dynamic evolution of the Earth’s surface over geological time.

Classification of Landforms
 Major Landforms of the Earth

The surface of the Earth is not the same everywhere. Some places are high and rough, while
others are flat. These shapes of the land are called landforms. Landforms are made by two
main processes. The internal process happens inside the Earth and makes the land rise or sink.
The external process happens on the surface and includes erosion and deposition. Erosion
wears away the land, and deposition builds land where the eroded material is dropped. Water,
ice, and wind cause these changes.

Landforms are divided into three main types: mountains, plateaus, and plains.

Mountains

A mountain is a high part of the Earth with steep sides. Mountains are usually at least 30 0
meters higher than the land around them. Some mountains stand alone, but most form
mountain ranges, which are lines of mountains. Many mountains have glaciers, which are
rivers of ice that stay frozen.
There are three main types of mountains. Fold mountains are made when the Earth’s crust is
folded, like the Himalayas and Alps. Block mountains are made when big blocks of land are
lifted or dropped, like the Rhine Valley in Europe. Volcanic mountains are made by volcanoes,
like Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa and Mt. Fuji in Japan. Mountains are very useful. They provide
water for rivers, farming, and electricity. They also have forests, animals, and plants, and are
nice places for tourists.

Plateaus

A plateau is a high, flat land. It is flat on top but rises above the land around it. Examples
include the Deccan Plateau in India, the Western Plateau in Australia, the East African Plateau
in Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda, and the Tibet Plateau, which is the highest in the world.
Plateaus are useful for farming, living, and mining because the land is flat.

Plains

Plains are flat lands that do not change much in height. They are mostly without trees and can
be found in valleys, near mountains, or by the sea. Plains are usually less than 20 0 meters
above sea level and have very fertile soil, so many people live there. Large plains
are formed

by rivers over time, like the Ganga and Brahmaputra plains in India and the
Yangtze plains in

China. Plains are important for farming and living because they are flat and fertile.