Electrical measuring

instruments
 Principles of Operation
Magnetic Effect A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experiences a
mechanical force
Electrodynamic Effect A mechanical force is produced between two or more coils that carry electric
current.
Electromagnetic Effect The force of attraction or repulsion between magnetized pieces of soft iron
(or iron vanes) placed within a magnetic field created by a current-carrying
coil.
Thermal Effect Electric current, when passed through a conductor, generates heat (P=I 2R),
and this heat is used to produce a measurable effect.
Electrostatic Effect A mechanical force is produced due to the attraction or repulsion between
electrically charged bodies (electrodes) when a potential difference (voltage)
is applied between them.
 Essentials of Indicating Instruments

1. Deflecting (or operating) torque (Td) (magnetic, electrostatic, electrodynamic, thermal, etc.)
2. Controlling (or restoring) torque (Tc) (spring, gravity, etc.) Tc = Td ∴ θ ∝ reading
3. Damping torque. (air friction, eddy current, fluid friction)
 Moving-iron Ammeters and Voltmeters
They work on the principle of the electromagnetic force of attraction or repulsion between a magnetic field of a coil and one or more
pieces of soft iron

Electromagnet: Stationary coil through which the current (or a current proportional to the voltage) to be measured flows. This coil acts
as a temporary electromagnet.

Magnetic Field: When current passes through the coil, it generates a magnetic field whose strength is proportional to the magnitude of
the current.

Iron Vane Interaction: One or more pieces of soft iron (called vanes) are placed within this magnetic field. The magnetic field
magnetizes the iron vanes.

Deflection: The resulting force (attraction or repulsion) on a movable iron vane causes it to deflect. This movement is transmitted to a
pointer across a calibrated scale.

Unidirectional Torque: Since the deflecting force is proportional to the square of the current (Td​ ∝I2), the direction of the force remains
the same even if the current's polarity reverses (as in AC). This makes the instrument suitable for both AC and DC measurements.

Attraction type Repulsion type. Symbol

 Moving-iron Ammeters and Voltmeters
Magnetic Field Strength (H): The field strength created by the stationary coil is to the current (I)

H∝I
Magnetization of the Iron Vane (m): The strength of the magnetic poles induced in the vane is proportional to the magnetic
field strength (H):
m∝H∝I
The Force (F): The force (or torque) on the iron vane is proportional to the product of the field strength and the pole
strength of the vane:

Td​ ∝ F ∝ m×H
Substituting the proportional relationships: Td ​∝ (I) × (I) ; ie.

Td​ ∝ I2
Ampere-turns
Ammeter: the coil has less turns of thick wire, carry load current, low resistance and connected in series
Voltmeter: the coil has high large number of turns, draw small current and connected in parallel.
 Moving-iron Ammeters and Voltmeters
Advantages

• Universal Use: Can be used to measure both AC and DC quantities. For AC, it measures the RMS value.

• Robust and Simple: Simple, robust construction, and relatively inexpensive.

• High Overload Capacity: Can withstand temporary overloads better than some other instruments.

• High Torque-to-Weight Ratio: This results in less friction error.

Disadvantages

• Non-Uniform Scale: The deflecting torque is proportional to the square of the current (Td​∝I2).

Errors from:
Hysteresis: When measuring DC, due to the residual magnetism in the iron.
Frequency Change: In AC measurements.
Stray Magnetic Fields: External magnetic fields can affect the reading.

• High Power Consumption: Generally requires more power to operate compared to Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)
instruments.
 Moving-coil Ammeters and Voltmeters
Principle : when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it is acted
upon by a force which tends to move it to one side and out of the field

(i) Permanent-magnet type : only for DC. (ii) Dynamometer type : for both for AC and DC

Symbol
Symbol

Td​ = N ⋅ B ⋅ A ⋅ I Td​ = N ⋅ B ⋅ A ⋅ I

Number Flux Area of Current Number Flux Area of Current

of turns density coil M2 of turns density coil M2
Wb/m2 Wb/m2
∝I

Td ∝
​ I Td ​∝ I2
 Moving-coil Ammeters and Voltmeters

Advantages
• Uniform Scale: Td​∝I Advantages
• High Sensitivity and Accuracy: • AC and DC Measurement
• Low Power Consumption: • True RMS Value
• Efficient Damping: eddy current damping aluminum former • Free from Hysteresis and Eddy Current Errors: no iron parts in the
• Low Influence from Stray Fields: magnetic circuit
• High Torque-to-Weight Ratio: less friction error, good accuracy.
• Free from Hysteresis Loss: field produced by the magnet Disadvantages
• Range Extension: Easily extended • Non-Uniform Scale (Ammeter/Voltmeter):
• Low Torque-to-Weight Ratio: air-cored, the magnetic field is weak
Disadvantages • High Power Consumption::
• DC Measurements Only: • Sensitivity to Stray Fields
• Higher Cost: • Delicate moving system
• Delicate Construction:
• Errors Due to Aging: gradual weakening of magnets
 Measurement of AC Voltage & Current

• The pointer effectively averages the instantaneous torque due to

inertia/damping ie . pointer will settle corresponds to the average (mean)
value

• Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument will experience an

average torque of zero (due to + ve torque and -ve torque) and will not give
any reading.

• Moving Iron (MI) or dynamo meter Instrument will experience unidirectional

Torque: T ∝ I2, it is always positive (or in the same direction). Pointer will settle
correspond to mean value of I2

• The Instrument is calibrated to read root value of mean of I2 ie. RMS

• Measuring RMS is important because it is the only way to know the actual
power and heating effect of an AC
 Rectifier instrument

• A rectifier instrument converts AC into a pulsating DC using diodes, then employs a sensitive Permanent
Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) meter to measure this DC

PMMC
Instrument

They measure the average of the rectified wave and then

multiply it by 1.11 to show the RMS value.
Accurate with pure sine wave only
 True RMS
Wave form distortion due to

• Rectifiers
• Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) for motors.
• LED lighting and electronic ballasts.
• Computers/Servers (using switched-mode power supplies).
• Solar/Wind Inverters (DC-to-AC conversion).

• Standard meters are calibrated to assume you are measuring a perfect sine wave.
• They measure the average value and multiply it by 1.11 to estimate the RMS value.
• Dynamo meter and moving iron meters can measure RMS but are less accurate for higher frequencies/distortions.

Measuring True RMS (effective value) of any waveform's shape is important.

• Equipment Overheating and Fire Hazard

• Improper Circuit Protection
• Inaccurate Power and Energy Billing
• Incorrect Troubleshooting and Diagnostics
• Improper System Sizing
 True RMS
Hot-wire Instrument
• Measure current or voltage by utilizing the heating effect of electric current (Joule heating).
• Current passes through a thin wire, causing it to heat up and expand in proportion to the square of the current's value.
• Measure RMS value of an AC signal and can also function with DC signals.
• Can be used for high frequencies where moving-iron instruments fail,
• Delicate, slow to respond, and consume a significant amount of power.

Thermocouple instrument

• Current passes through a heating element (a thin wire), generating heat due to the Joule heating effect
• A thermocouple (a junction of two dissimilar metals) is physically in contact with or near this hot wire, sensing the temperature rise.
• According to the Seebeck effect, the temperature difference between this hot junction and a cold reference junction generates a
small DC voltage (EMF).
• This small DC voltage is measured by a sensitive instrument, which is calibrated to display the RMS value of the current

Digital TRMS meter

• Uses sophisticated digital signal processing.

• Takes many instantaneous voltage/current samples of waveform cycle and calculate
• Highly accurate readings in modern electrical environments with variable frequency drives, computers, and LED lighting that
distort waveforms
 Megger
A megger, or mega ohmmeter, is a portable electrical instrument used to measure
insulation resistance.

It works by applying a high DC voltage (typically 500V to 5kV) to an electrical system or

component and measuring the resulting small leakage current.

This allows measurement of insulation in cables, motors, and transformers to detect

deterioration and prevent electric shock or equipment failure

Insulation - Torque of coil A is proportional to I1 cos θ

resistance
- Torque of coil B is proportional to I2 cos (90 −θ) or I2 sin θ
- At equilibrium I1 cos θ = I2 sin θ
or tan θ = I1/I2 or V/I2 or Insulation Resistance

Torque is maximum when any coil's plane is parallel to the field Manual / Motorised Cranking
Torque is zero when any coil's plane is perpendicular to the field
Centrifugal clutch engagement for constant speed
Constant Voltage
 Power Meter
Dynamometer-type

• Dynamometer-type (moving coil) power meter is generally used (For AC and DC)
• The deflecting torque is proportional to the product of the instantaneous voltage of potential coil and
instantaneous current of current coils
• The moving system is slow to physically respond to these rapid fluctuations.
• Instead of jumping back and forth, the pointer takes up a steady position corresponding to the average
torque exerted over a complete AC cycle.
• The mathematical average of the instantaneous power in an AC circuit is the True Power
 Power Meter
Induction-type

ɸV XɸI

ɸI Flux due to Voltage coil Flux due to Current Coil Angle between fluxes

ɸV 90 Deg. Lagging due to

shading ring

ɸI
ɸV

V Coil Current

• Operating Principle: Electromagnetic induction, where alternating magnetic fields induce eddy currents in a
moving part.
• Components: It uses two main electromagnets: the series magnet (proportional to current) and the shunt
magnet (proportional to voltage).
• Mechanism: The interaction of the fluxes from these magnets induces eddy currents in a freely suspended
aluminum disc.
* Shading Ring: Small, adjustable copper bands that makes the flux to lag the applied voltage by 90∘ angle.
• Torque Generation: The resulting force generates a driving torque that is directly proportional to the
instantaneous power (P=V×I×cosϕ) consumed by the load.
 Power Meter
3 PHASE

• The three-phase dynamometer wattmeter is essentially comprised of two separate single-phase dynamometer
elements mounted on a single mechanism.
• Individual Torque: Each element (Current Coil + Potential Coil) produces a deflecting torque (Td​) proportional to
the power measured by that specific element (W1​ and W2​).
• Total Torque: Since both moving coils are on the same spindle, the total deflecting torque is the algebraic sum of
the individual torques: T total​=Td1​+Td2
• Total Power: The pointer deflection, and thus the meter reading, is proportional to the total torque, which is
proportional to the total three-phase power (W) (Like in the case of two wattmeter method)
 Energy Meter

• Torque Production: The interaction between the alternating magnetic fluxes from the voltage coil and current coil
induces eddy currents in the aluminum disc. This electromagnetic interaction creates a Driving Torque (Td​) that is
proportional to the Instantaneous Power (P) being consumed by the load (Td ∝ P).

• Braking Magnet: A strong Permanent Magnet (Braking Magnet) is placed near the edge of the rotating aluminum
disc. As the disc rotates, it cuts the constant magnetic field of this magnet, inducing eddy currents that create a
Braking Torque (Tb​) that opposes the motion. Tb​ is proportional to the Disc Speed (N) (Tb ​∝ N).

• Steady Speed: The disc reaches a steady, constant speed when the driving and opposing torques are equal this
means the Disc Speed (N) is directly proportional to the Power (P) being consumed (N ∝ P).

Number of revolutions
• Power ∝ , Energy = Power X Time, Energy ∝ Number of revolutions
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

• Recording: The register mechanically counts the total number of revolutions made by the disc. This count is
calibrated to directly display the accumulated energy consumption in Kilowatt-hours (kWh).
 Accuracy of Instruments
• The accuracy of an electrical measuring instrument is defined as the closeness with which the instrument's
measured reading approaches the true or accepted value of the electrical quantity (e.g., voltage, current,
resistance) being measured.

• Accuracy ∝ 1/ Error​

• Accuracy Class: This is a standardized figure (e.g., 0.1, 0.5, 1.0….) which represents the error tolerance of the
device, usually as a percentage of the full scale. A smaller number indicates higher accuracy.

Eg.: Consider a voltmeter with the following specifications:

Range (F.S.D.): 0 to 150V
Accuracy Class: 2.0 (i.e., ±2.0% of F.S.D.)
Calculate error = 2.0 % ​× 150V = ±3.0 V

The instrument is guaranteed that any reading it provides will not be more than 3 V from the true value.

If the meter reads 150V: The true value is between 147.0V and 153.0V. (+- 2 %)
If the meter reads 50V: The true value is between 47.0V and 53.0V. (+- 6% )
Marking/Symbols
 Instrument Transformers
Current Transformers:

Current Transformers (CTs) are essential for stepping down high

currents to levels that can be safely handled Resin Cast (Epoxy Cast)

Ratio: The transformation ratio (e.g., 100/5 A)

Accuracy Class: The required precision (maximum permissible Tape Wound Current Transformers
error in its secondary current output relative to the primary
current). Eg. 0.1, 02, 0.5,

VA Burden: The maximum allowable load impedance (in VA)

that can be connected to the secondary coil without exceeding
the accuracy class. Eg. 10 VA, 15 VA
Clamp meter
NEVER Open-Circuit the Secondary:
Reason: An open secondary under load causes the entire primary current to
become exciting current, generating dangerously high flux, which induces
thousands of volts across the secondary terminals, posing a severe hazard to
personnel and damaging the CT's insulation.

Wound Primary Type

 Instrument Transformers
Voltage/potential Transformers

PTs are step-down transformers to reduce high system voltages to a

lower voltage (typically 110V). For measurement

The primary winding is connected in parallel (shunt) across the phase

and ground or across two phases of the circuit being measured.

Difference from power transformers is that PTs are designed for

accuracy in the voltage ratio and phase angle, not for transferring large
amounts of power

The VA rating is the maximum load the VT can handle without its
measurement error exceeding the limits. Eg. 10 VA, 15 VA, 25 VA

Accuracy Class: 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.0, 3.0 VT with Class 0.2 means the
ratio error will not exceed ±0.2% under specified operating
conditions

For safety, the secondary winding of a voltage transformer must be

grounded at one point (usually one of the terminals, X1​ or X2​).

Capacitive Voltage Transformer For Extra High Voltages (EHV)

Instrument