Definition (PMI):

A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product,

service, or result

Key Characteristics of a Project

1. Has an objective
→ e.g., “Launch a new fitness app in 6 months”

2. Temporary (start + end)

→ unlike ongoing operations

3. Cross-functional
→ marketing + engineering + finance work together

4. Unique / non-routine
→ designing a new iPhone, not manufacturing the same one daily

5. Constraints: time, cost, scope

→ project must balance all three (triple constraint)

Project Life Cycle (4 Stages) — With Examples

1️Conceptualization

 Define the project goal, scope, resources.

 Example:

o “We will build a college event app where students register

digitally.”

2️Planning

 Work breakdown structure (WBS)

 Scheduling (Gantt, PERT)

 Assigning work packages

 Example:

o Team allocation → Designers, developers, marketing

o Create timeline → Planning 2 months, execution 4 months

3️Execution

 Actual work happens—coding, construction, manufacturing

 Cost and effort peak during this phase

 Example:

o Developers build app, testers test, marketing prepares launch

materials

4️Termination (Closure)

 Deliver final product

 Release resources
  Document lessons learned

 Example:

o App goes live, team disbanded, project officially closed

PMBOK
Definition (1 mark)
The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) is a standards
guide published by the Project Management Institute (PMI) that describes
widely-accepted project management practices, processes, and
terminology used to manage projects effectively.

Process Groups (1 mark)

PMBOK organises project work into five process groups: Initiating,
Planning, Executing, Monitoring & Controlling, and Closing. These
groups represent logical stages of work that occur throughout a project’s
life cycle and provide a flow for performing project management activities.

Knowledge Areas (1 mark)

PMBOK defines ten knowledge areas (Integration, Scope,
Schedule, Cost, Quality, Resource, Communications, Risk,
Procurement, Stakeholder). Each knowledge area contains the
processes, inputs, tools & techniques, and outputs needed to
manage that aspect of a project.

Integration and Processes (1 mark)

The guide emphasises integration management — coordinating all
processes so project objectives are met. Every process group contains
specific processes (e.g., Develop Project Charter in Initiating; Develop
Schedule in Planning; Control Costs in Monitoring) that interact to deliver
the project.

Purpose and Importance (1 mark)

PMBOK provides a common language and best-practice framework for
practitioners, supports consistent project delivery, helps in risk reduction
and stakeholder alignment, and is the basis for PMI certifications (e.g.,
PMP).
Example: Using PMBOK, a project manager prepares a Project
Management Plan (integration), breaks deliverables into a WBS (scope),
schedules tasks (schedule), estimates budget (cost), and monitors
variance (monitoring & controlling) to ensure successful delivery
1. Five Steps in Collecting Project Information

Step 1: Define Project Scope

 Scope = clear description of end result / deliverable.

 Specifies what the project will achieve in specific, tangible,

measurable terms.
Example: “Develop a college event registration app with payment
integration.”

Step 2: Establish Project Priorities

Three criteria → Time, Cost, Performance (Scope)

PM decides which is:

 Constrain → Fixed requirement (cannot change)

 Enhance → Optimised

 Accept → Flexible
Example:
For a festival app: Time (Constrain), Scope (Enhance), Cost (Accept)

Step 3: Create Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)

 Break project into sub-deliverables and then into work

packages.

 Provides clarity on what tasks must be done.

Step 4: Integrate WBS with the Organization

 Link WBS elements with departments using OBS (Organization

Breakdown Structure).

 Helps assign responsibility to teams/individuals.

Step 5: Code the WBS for Information Systems

 Assign codes to each WBS element.

 Helps in budgeting, monitoring, cost control, and reporting.

Example: 1.2.1 → Module 1 → Sub-module 2 → Task 1.
PROJECT CHARTER — Definition

Definition

A formal, authorizing document that officially starts the project and

gives the project manager permission to use organizational resources.

Purpose

 Acts as a contract between sponsor and team.

 High-level summary of the project.

Scope of the Project Charter

1. Authorization: PM gets formal authority.

2. Boundaries: Defines what is in-scope and out-of-scope.

3. Stakeholder Alignment: Ensures everyone agrees on objectives

and success criteria.

4. Guides Planning: Becomes the base for detailed plans (scope,

schedule, cost, risk).

Contents Usually Included

 Project purpose & objectives

 High-level scope

 Budget summary

 Risks

 Success criteria

 Constraints & assumptions

 Stakeholder list

 PM name & authority level

WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE (WBS)

Definition

A hierarchical decomposition of the total project work.

It breaks deliverables into sub-deliverables → work packages.

Work Package (Lowest Level)

 Smallest unit of work

 Has a specific start & end date

 Should not exceed 10 workdays

 Measurable and assignable

 A single person is responsible

Purpose of WBS

The Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) serves multiple important

purposes in project management:

1. Identifies All Work Elements:

It ensures that every deliverable and sub-task required for the
project is clearly listed, preventing ambiguity about what needs to
be done.

2. Helps in Planning, Scheduling, and Budgeting:

By breaking work into smaller units, it becomes easier to estimate
time, cost, and resources, leading to more accurate planning and
scheduling.

3. Basis for Cost Control and Performance Tracking:

Each work package can be monitored individually, allowing the
project manager to track progress, compare actual vs. planned
performance, and control costs effectively.

4. Prevents Missing Activities:

The structured decomposition minimizes the chance of overlooking
critical tasks, ensuring that the entire project scope is covered.

5. Provides Clarity to Team Members:

Since tasks are defined clearly, team members understand their
responsibilities, deliverables, and timelines, reducing confusion.
 6. Helps Create the OBS and Assign Accountability:
WBS links directly with the Organization Breakdown Structure (OBS),
enabling assignment of responsibility to teams or individuals and
supporting accountability.

Comparative Table: OBS vs PBS

OBS (Organization Breakdown PBS (Process Breakdown
Basis
Structure) Structure)
A hierarchical chart showing the A hierarchical breakdown showing
Definition organizational units responsible for the processes/phases the project
different project tasks. goes through.
Focuses on how the work will be
Focus Focuses on who will do the work.
done (steps/phases).
To break the project into sequential
To assign responsibilities and link
Purpose process steps rather than
WBS elements to departments/teams.
deliverables.
Responsibility assignment, cost control Process-oriented projects like
Used For accounts, tracking team-wise software development, research, or
performance. service processes.
Project life cycle phases or
Structure Based Organizational hierarchy (departments,
activities (analysis → design →
On teams, individuals).
coding → testing).
Responsibility matrix, cost accounts, Process flow or phased structure of
Output Type
assignment charts. work.
Integrates with WBS to form cost Alternative to WBS when
Relationship
accounts (intersection of work + deliverable-based breakdown isn’t
With WBS
responsibility). suitable.
Nature of People-oriented: aligns work Process-oriented: aligns tasks to
Breakdown packages to org units. workflow stages.
Software project phases:
Marketing team responsible for “1.2
Example Requirements → Design →
Promotions” work package.
Development → Testing.
Construction, engineering, event
IT, software, research—where
Best Suited For management—where clear
work flows through phases.
responsibility is required.
AGILE vs TRADITIONAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT — Comparative
Table

Traditional Project Agile Project

Factor
Management (TPM) Management (APM)

Approach Predictive, plan-driven Adaptive, change-driven

Heavy upfront planning;

Rolling-wave planning;
Planning detailed scope, time & cost
plans evolve every iteration
baselines

Fixed early; changes Evolving; changes

Requirements
discouraged welcomed anytime

Sequential (Waterfall:
Iterative & incremental
Project Phases Requirements → Design →
(small sprints/iterations)
Build → Test → Deploy)

One final delivery at project Frequent delivery of

Delivery
end working increments

Customer Low to moderate; periodic High; daily or weekly

Involvement reviews collaboration

Team Hierarchical, command-and- Self-organizing, cross-

Structure control functional

Documentatio Extensive, formal Minimal but sufficient; focus

n documentation on working product

High flexibility and

Flexibility Low flexibility
adaptability

Risks discovered
Risks identified early; rigid
Risk Handling continuously; adaptive
plan to manage
response

Stable, predictable projects Uncertain, innovative

Best For (construction, projects (software, R&D,
manufacturing, engineering) digital products)

Change Formal change control Changes absorbed naturally

Management required in iterations
 Traditional Project Agile Project
Factor
Management (TPM) Management (APM)

Success Conformance to plan (scope, Customer value & working

Measure time, cost) product delivered

Team Size Larger teams Small teams (4–8 people)

Leadership Directive, project manager Servant leadership (Scrum

Style controls Master facilitates)

Construction of bridge, App development, AI tool

Example
metro line creation

SCRUM (Agile Framework)

Scrum is a holistic, team-based Agile approach focusing on delivering

product features in short cycles called sprints.

Key Scrum Elements

A) Roles

1. Product Owner

o Represents customer needs.

o Prioritizes backlog.

2. Scrum Master

o Facilitates process, removes roadblocks.

o Not a traditional manager; servant leader.

3. Development Team

o Cross-functional group (5–9 members).

o Builds and delivers features.

B) Artifacts

1. Product Backlog
List of all desired features, prioritized.

2. Sprint Backlog
Subset of features chosen for the sprint.
 3. Burndown Charts
Track remaining work over time.

C) Scrum Ceremonies

 Sprint Planning

 Daily Scrum (15 mins)

 Sprint Review (demo to customer)

 Retrospective (process improvement)

Example

A fintech company releases a working “UPI scan & pay” feature in Sprint
1, “transaction history” in Sprint 2, based on customer priorities.

KANBAN

Kanban is a lean workflow management tool that uses a visual board.

Structure

Columns typically are:

 Next / Planned

 Work in Progress (WIP)

 Done

Key Principles

 Visualize workflow

 Limit WIP to reduce bottlenecks

 Pull system, NOT push

 Continuous problem-solving

Example

A digital marketing agency uses a Kanban board to track creative tasks

from design → approval → publishing

LEAN PRINCIPLES
Lean focuses on minimizing waste and maximizing value.

Five Lean Principles

1. Specify value (from customer perspective)

2. Map value stream

3. Create flow (smooth, uninterrupted processes)

4. Use pull system (work starts only when needed)

5. Continuous improvement

Example

Toyota’s lean production system—removing excess inventory, ensuring

parts arrive just in time.

RISK MITIGATION STRATEGIES

A) Mitigate

Reduce probability or impact

E.g., Do prototype testing early.

B) Avoid

Remove the risk completely

E.g., Use proven technology instead of new untested tech.

C) Transfer

Pass risk to another party

E.g., Insurance, outsourcing, fixed-price contracts.

D) Escalate

Hand issue to higher authorities.

E) Retain (Accept)

Do nothing except monitor.

Contingency Planning

Alternative plan used only if a risk occurs.

Prevents panic decisions.

Example

If “chief engineer falls sick,” contingency plan: have backup contractor on

standby.
 Total Quality
Factor Six Sigma
Management (TQM)

A management philosophy
A data-driven methodology
focused on continuous
aimed at reducing variation
Definition quality improvement
and defects to 3.4 per
across the entire
million opportunities
organization

Achieve near-perfect quality

Build a long-term culture of
Primary Goal by minimizing process
quality and customer focus
variability

Organization-wide quality
Process improvement using
Focus Area awareness and cultural
statistical analysis
improvement

Broad principles: customer

DMAIC / DMADV focus, continuous
Approach
structured steps improvement, employee
involvement

Strong emphasis on Uses both qualitative and

Measurement quantitative data, metrics, quantitative measures, but
DPMO less statistical

Statistical tools, control

Quality circles, Kaizen, PDCA
Tools Used charts, hypothesis testing,
cycle, benchmarking
DOE, regression

Clear hierarchy: Champions,

Roles & No formal roles; everyone is
Master Black Belts, Black
Structure responsible for quality
Belts, Green Belts

Training High – specialized training Moderate – basic quality

Requirement for belts training for all employees

Project-focused (specific Culture-focused (quality in

Orientation
improvement projects) all processes continuously)

Implementati Higher cost due to training, Lower cost; more about

on Cost analytics, experts mindset and processes

Medium to long (project-

Timeframe Long-term cultural change
based)

Best Suited Large organizations with Any organization aiming to

 Total Quality
Factor Six Sigma
Management (TQM)

measurable processes (e.g., improve quality culture

For manufacturing, finance, (schools, hospitals,
telecom) manufacturing, services)

A bank reduces loan errors A hospital trains all staff to

Example
using DMAIC follow quality procedures

SIX SIGMA

Six Sigma is both a quality performance metric and a structured

methodology for process improvement.
In statistical terms, a process that achieves Six Sigma quality produces
only 3.4 defects per million opportunities (DPMO).
Its main purpose is to reduce variation, minimize defects, and create
highly consistent, reliable processes.

Key Ideas of Six Sigma

 It is data-driven and relies on precise measurement and statistical

tools.

 It focuses on finding the root causes of defects instead of treating

symptoms.

 It aims for near-perfect performance.

 It emphasizes strict discipline and structured problem solving.

Six Sigma Methodologies

There are two major approaches:

1. DMAIC (used for improving existing processes)

o Define the problem and customer requirements

o Measure current process performance

o Analyze data to identify causes of defects

o Improve the process by eliminating root causes

o Control the improved process to sustain gains

2. DMADV (used to create new processes or designs)

o Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, Verify

Six Sigma Roles

Six Sigma uses a hierarchy similar to martial arts belts:

 Champions – senior executives owning the projects

 Master Black Belts – experts and trainers

 Black Belts – full-time problem solvers

 Green Belts – part-time team members

 Team Members – domain experts helping with tasks

Example

A bank notices high error rates in loan approvals.

Using DMAIC, they collect process data, identify bottlenecks, and redesign
steps.
The defects drop from 6% to 1%, improving customer satisfaction

TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

TQM is a management philosophy that aims to embed quality into

every activity of an organization.
It is not a project-based approach like Six Sigma; it is a long-term cultural
transformation.

Key Principles of TQM

1. Customer Focus
Quality is defined by what the customer wants.
Every process should aim to meet or exceed customer expectations.

2. Leadership Involvement
Senior management must commit to quality and drive improvement
initiatives.

3. Continuous Improvement
Quality is not a one-time activity.
Incremental, ongoing improvements (Kaizen) are emphasized.

4. Employee Empowerment
Quality is everyone’s responsibility — not just the quality
department.
 Workers suggest improvements, participate in teams, and solve
problems.

5. Quality Assurance Processes

Organizations must design processes that prevent defects rather
than detect them later.

6. Supplier Partnerships
Suppliers must also follow quality standards because final quality
depends heavily on them.

7. Strategic Quality Planning

Quality goals must be aligned with the organization’s long-term
strategy.

Cost of Quality (According to Juran)

TQM highlights that quality has costs, and they fall into four categories:

 Internal failure costs – defects found before delivery

 External failure costs – defects found by customers

 Appraisal costs – inspecting, testing

 Prevention costs – training, planning, process design

The goal is to increase prevention so that failure costs decrease.

Example

A hospital implements TQM by training staff, standardizing patient-

handling procedures, and improving communication.
Over time, patient complaints reduce, errors drop, and efficiency
improves.