Fibre Optics and its applications 1.

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 1.2 Engineering Physics
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D 1.1 INTRODUCTION
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L Fibre optics is a branch of science that deals with the propagation of light
E through optical fibre. In optical fibres, the light is launched in one end of the fibre
1 and it is passed through the other end without any loss of signals. The light passes
through the optical fibre due to the total internal reflection of light. The light
undergoes total internal reflection more than one lakh times within one metre length
of the fibre.
Some experiments were carried out on propagation of information through
light waves in open atmosphere. A light beam acting as a carrier wave is capable
of carrying information more than that of radio waves and microwaves because
of its high frequency.
Radio waves - 106 Hz.
Micro waves - 1010 Hz.
Light waves - 1015 Hz.
The light transmission in the atmosphere is restricted to line of sight and
severely affected by disturbances such as rain, snow, fog, dust and atmospheric
turbulence. Hence, to have an efficient communication system the light which carries
the information requires a guiding medium known as optical fibres.

1.2 FUNDAMENTALS OF FIBRE OPTICS

An optical fibre is a very thin, flexible thread of transparent plastic or glass
in which light is transmitted based on the principle of total internal reflection. It
consists of central cylindrical core surrounded by a layer of material called the
cladding. The cladding is enclosed by strength members and polyurethane jacket,
which acts as protective for core and cladding as shown in Fig. 1.1 Light is
transmitted within the core. The cladding keeps the light waves within the core
because the refractive index of the cladding material is less than that of the core.
The cladding also provides some strength to the core. The additional polyurethane
jacket protects the fibre from moisture and abrasion.

Fig. 1.1 Structure of optical fibre

Fibre Optics and its applications 1.3
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The core as well as the cladding is made of either glass or plastic. Three
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major types of fibres are L
(i) Plastic core with plastic cladding. E
(ii) Glass core with plastic cladding and 1
(iii) Glass core with glass cladding.
In the case of plastics, the core can be polystryrene or polyether
methacrylate. The cladding is generally made of Silicon or Teflon. The glass is
made of silica. Small amount of components such as Boron, Germanium or
Phosphorus is added to change the refractive index of the fibre. In comparison
with glass, plastic fibres are flexible and inexpensive.
The thickness of the core of a typical glass fibre is nearly 50 m and that of
cladding is 100 to 200 m. The overall thickness of an optical fibre is nearly 125 to
200 m.

1.3 FEATURES OF OPTICAL FIBRES

 It is light in weight.
 It is smaller in size and flexible, so that it can bend to any position.
 It is non-conductive, non-radiative and non-inductive.
 It has high bandwidth and low loss.
 There is no short circuiting as in metal wires.
 There is no internal noise (or) cross talks.
 It can withstand any range of temperatures and moisture conditions.

1.4 PRINCIPLE AND PROPAGATION OF LIGHT THROUGH OPTICAL

FIBRES - TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION & CRITICAL ANGLE
Principle
The principle behind the transmission of light waves in an optical fibre is total
internal reflection.
Total Internal Reflection
The phenomenon of total internal reflection takes place when it satisfies the
following two conditions.
Condition 1. Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
i.e., n1 > n2
 1.4 Engineering Physics
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L n2 - refractive index of rarer medium (cladding)
E Condition 2. The angle of incidence should be greater than the critical angle.
1 i.e., i > c
where, i - Angle of incidence
c - Critical angle.
Propagation Phenomenon & Critical angle
Let the light ray travel from denser medium to rarer medium. The reflection
and refraction at the interface is a result of the difference in the speed of light in
two materials having different refractive indices.
Case (i) When i < c , the ray is refracted into the rarer medium as
shown in Fig. 1.2 (a).
Case (ii) When i = c , the ray travels along the interface so that the
angle of refraction is 90º. This angle (c) is called as critical
angle as shown in Fig. 1.2 (b).
Case (iii) When i > c, the ray is totally reflected back into the denser
medium itself as shown in Fig. 1.2 (c). This phenomenon is
known as total internal reflection.
The angles of incidence qi and refraction r are related to each other and
to the refractive indices of the dielectrics by Snell's law of refraction which is
represented by the following equation.
From Fig. 1.2 (a) n1 Sin i = n2 Sin r .... (1)

Sin  i n2
=
Sin  r n1
From Fig. 1.2 (b)
When i = c,r = 90º then by snell's law,
n1 Sin c = n2 Sin 90º

Sin  c n2
=
Sin 90 n1
n2
 sin c = [ sin 90º = 1]
n1

Sin 1
FG IJ
n2
 c =
H K
n1
.... (2)
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.5
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Where qc is the critical angle and n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of
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the denser and rarer medium respectively. L
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1

Fig. 1.2 Phenomenon of total internal reflection

1.5 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN OPTICAL FIBRES

For optical fibres, the process of propagation of light (optical signal) is simple,
because the light wave enters at one end of the fibre and strikes the interface of
the core and cladding only at large angles of incidence. The light beam undergoes
total internal reflection and passes through the length of the cable. Even for a bent
fibre, the light guidance takes place by multiple total internal reflection all over the
length of the fibre as shown in Fig. 1.2.
Let us consider an optical fibre into which the light is injected. The light ray
travels along AO and enters the core at an angle a to the axis of the fibre.

Fig. 1.3. Propagation of light in optical fibre

The light ray is refracted along OB at an angle r in the core. It further
proceeds to fall at critical angle of incidence  = (90 - r) on the interface between
core and cladding at B as shown in Fig. 1.3.
If  is greater than the critical angle at the core cladding interface, the light
ray gets total internally reflected and propagates through the fibre (i.e.,) the light
will stay inside the fibre. Since it is the critical angle of incidence, the ray is
 1.6 Engineering Physics
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L However, only light wave that enters at an angle of incidence greater than a at
E O will ultimately be incident at B at an angle less than the critical angle. Due to
this, it will be refracted into the cladding region and be absorbed by the cladding
1 and hence it will be lost.

Fig. 1.3 Light propagation in optical fibre

1.6 FRACTIONAL INDEX CHANGE (D)

It is the ratio of the refractive index difference in core and cladding to
the refractive index of core.

(i.e.,)  =
bn 1  n2 g .....(1)
n1

Relation between NA and 

we know that NA = n12  n 22

(or) NA = bn 1  n2 g bn 1  n2 g .....(2)
From eqn.(1) n1 D = n1 – n2 .....(3)
eqn. (3) sub in eqn. (2)
NA = bn 1 g
 n 2 n1 
If n1 » n2, then
NA = 2 n12 

 NA = n1 2  .....(4)
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1.7 NUMERICAL APERTURE AND ACCEPTANCE ANGLE
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Let n1 and n2 be the refractive indices of core and cladding and let n0 L
be the refractive index of the medium (air) in which the optical fibre is placed. E
Now applying the Snell's law of refraction at the point of entry of the ray AO 1
(Fig. 1.3) into the core, we have,

n0 sin a = n1 sin r .....(1)

at the point B on the interface of the core and cladding,
angle of incidence  = 90 – r
applying Snell's law of refraction again,
n1 sin (90 – r) = n2 sin 90º
n1 cos r = n2 [ sin 90º = 1]
n2
cos r = .....(2)
n1
Rewriting equation (1), we have
n1
Sin a = sin r
n0
n1
Sin a = 1  cos 2  r .....(3)
n0
Sub eqn. (2) in eqn. (3)

n1 n 22
Sin a = 1
n0 n 12

n1 n12  n 22
=
n0 n12

n12  n 22
Sin a = .....(4)
n0

n 12  n 22
 Acceptance angle a = Sin 1 .....(5)
n0
If the refractive index of air (n0) = 1

 Acceptance angle a = Sin–1 n12  n 22 .....(6)

 1.8 Engineering Physics
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U “Thus the maximum angle at (or) below which the light can suffer total
L internal reflection is called as acceptance angle. The cone is referred as
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acceptance cone”.
1 The sine of the acceptance angle of the fibre is known as numerical aperture
(NA). It denotes the light collecting efficiency of the fibre and is the measure of
the amount of the light rays that can be accepted by the fibre.
 NA = Sin a .....(7)
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Sin Sin 1 n12  n 22 OP
NA =
N Q
 NA = n12  n 22 .....(8)

1.8 TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBRES

Optical fibres are classified based on the material, the number of modes and
the refractive index profile.
Optical Fibre

Material [Link] modes Refractive index profile

(a) Glass fibres (a) Single mode fibre (a) Step index fibre
(b) Plastic fibres (b) Multimode fibre (b) Graded index fibre

i. Classification based on material

It can be classified into two types.
a. Glass fibre
b. Plastic fibre

a. Glass fibre
If the optical fibres are made by the fusing mixtures of metal oxides and
silica glass, then it is known as glass fibre.
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.9
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Examples
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The glass fibres can be made by any one of the following combinations L
of core and cladding. E

i. GeO2 - SiO2 core ; SiO2 cladding 1

ii. P2O5 - SiO2 core ; SiO2 cladding
iii. SiO2 core ; P2O5 - SiO2 cladding

b. Plastic fibres
The plastic fibres are typically made of plastics, so that they are flexible and
also low cost. It exhibits considerably greater signal attenuation than glass fibres.
The plastic fibres can be handled without special care due to its toughness and
durability.
Examples
1. Polystyrene core – Methylmethacrylate cladding.
2. Polymethylmethacrylate core - Co-polymer cladding.
ii. Classification based on number of modes
Depending on the number of modes of propagation the optical fibres are
classified as
a. Single mode fibre
b. Multi mode fibre.
a. Single mode fibre
It has a very small core diameter so that it can allow only one mode of
propagation and hence called single mode fibre. The cladding diameter must be large
compared to the core diameter. Thus in the case of a single mode fibre, the optical
loss is very much reduced. The structure of a single mode fibre is as shown in
Fig. 1.4. Generally single mode fibres are called step index fibres.

Fig. 1.4. Single mode fibre

 1.10 Engineering Physics
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U Structure
L Core diameter : 5 - 10 m.
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Cladding diameter : Generally around 125 m.
1 Buffer jacket diameter : 250 - 1000 m.
Numerical aperture : 0.08 to 0.15, usually around 0.10
Band width : More than 50 MHz.
Application
Because of its high band width, they are used in long haul communication systems.

b. Multi mode fibre

Here the core diameter is very large compared to single mode fibres, so
that it can allow many modes to propagate through it and hence called as
multimode fibres. The cladding diameter is also larger than the diameter of the single
mode fibres as shown in Fig.1.5. Multimode fibres has several advantages compared
to single mode fibres. The large core radii of multimode fibre make it easier to
launch optical power into the fibre. The multimode fibres are useful in manufacturing
both for the step index and graded index fibres.

Buffer jacket
Primary coating Refractive
index
Core
Cladding n1
n2

Fig. 1.5. Multi mode fibre

Structure
Core diameter : 50 - 350 m.
Cladding diameter : 125 - 500 m.
Buffer jacket diameter : 250 - 1100 m.
Numerical aperture : 0.12 - 0.5
Band width : Less than 50 MHz.
Application
Because of its less bandwidth it is very useful in short haul communication systems.
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.11
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1.8.1 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SINGLE MODE FIBRE AND
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MULTIMODE FIBRE L
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SINGLE MODE FIBRE MULTIMODE FIBRE
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Light can propagate through Light can propagate through the
the fibre in only one mode fibre with multiple number of modes.

The fibre core diameter is The fibre core diameter is large and
very small and the difference the difference in refractive indices
between refractive indices of the core and cladding is large.
of the core and cladding is
very small.

Since light propagates in Due to multimode propagation and

single mode, no dispersion material scattering, there is signal
occurs (i.e., no degradation of degradation.
light signal takes place during
propagation through the fibre).

Launching of light into the fibre Launching of light into the fibre
and coupling process is not easy. and coupling process are easy.
Used in longhaul communication. Used in LAN (Local Area Network).

Since, the fabrication is difficult, Since, the fabrication is easy, the

the production cost is very high. production cost is low.

iii. Classification based on the refractive index profile

The optical fibres are classified into two types,
a. Step index fibre b. Graded index fibre

Fig. 1.6 Step index single mode fibre

 1.12 Engineering Physics
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L In step index fibre, the variation in refractive indices of air, cladding and core
E varies step by step. Hence, it is known as step index fibre. The step index fibre
1 involves both single mode and multimode fibres as shown in Fig.1.7 and Fig. 1.7
respectively.

Fig. 1.7 Step index multimode fibre

In both the fibres the variation in refractive indices will be in step by step
as shown in Fig. 1.8. Since a single mode fibre has less dispersion than multimode,
the single mode step index fibre also has low intermodal dispersion compared to
multimode step index fibre.

Fig. 1.8 Refractive index profile of a step index fibre

b. Graded index fibre : (GRIN fibre)

Here the refractive index of the core varies radially from the axis of the
fibre. The refractive index of the core is maximum along the fibre axis and it
gradually decreases towards the surface. So it is called as graded index fibre.
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.13
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Refractive index is maximum at the fibre axis and minimum at the core-
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cladding interface. That is at the interface, the refractive index of the core and L
cladding is equal, whereas it varies with the distance between the fibre axis and E
core cladding interface. In general the graded index fibres will be of multimode
[Link] multimode graded index fibre has very less intermodal dispersion 1
compared to multimode step index fibre. A typical multimode graded index fibre is
as shown in Fig. 1.9.

Fig. 1.9 Graded index multimode fibre

Fig. 1.10 Refractive index profile of a graded index fibre

 1.14 Engineering Physics
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STEP INDEX FIBRE GRADED INDEX FIBRE
1 Since there is an abrupt change In this fibre, the refractive index of
in the refractive index at the core and the core is maximum at the centre
cladding interface, the refractive and decreases gradually (parabolic
index profile takes the shape of step. manner) with distance towards the
Hence, called step index fibre. outer edge. Hence, called graded
index fibre.
Attenuation is less for single Attenuation is less.
mode step index fibre and more
for multi mode step index fibre.
Number of modes of propagation Number of modes of propagation for
for a multimode step index fibre is a multimode graded index fibre is

given by N step =
b
4.9 d  NA g 2

given by N graded = b
4.9  d  NA g b g
2 2

bg
2 2
where d is the diameter of the core i.e., Thus, the number of modes is half
N step
N graded = core, is optical the number supported by a multimode
2
wavelength and NA is numerical step index fibre.
aperture.

The light rays propagate through The light rays propagate through
the fibre in the form of meridional fibre in the form of skew rays. i.e.,
rays, i.e., the rays follow a The rays follow a helical path
zig- zag path, when they travel around the fibre axis, and they
through fibre and for every would not cross the core-cladding
reflection it will cross the fibre interface at any time during their
axis as shown in Fig. 1.7. propagation as shown in Fig. 1.9.
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.15
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Single mode step index fibres are Graded index fibres are easy to U
expensive and difficult to manufacture. L
manufacture. But, multimode E
step index fibres are inexpensive 1
and simple to manufacture.
The bandwidth for single mode Multimode graded index fibre has
step index fibre is more than higher band width.
multimode step index fibre.
Numerical aperture is very Numerical aperture is high.
less for singlemode step index
fibre but is more for multimode
step index fibre.

1.9 LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBRE

When light propagates through an optical fibre, a small percentage of light
is lost through different mechanisms. Hence the two factors which affect the
transmission of light waves in optical fibres are
i. Attenuation
ii. Dispersion

1.9.1 Attenuation

It is defined as the ratio of the optical power output (Pout) from a fibre
of length “L” to the power input (Pin).

10 PLM OP
log out
Attenuation a =
L N Q
Pin
dB/Km

There are three mechanisms that can be attributed to attenuation.

i. Absorption losses
ii. Scattering losses
iii. Radiation or bending losses.
 1.16 Engineering Physics
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L Material absorption is a loss mechanism related to material composition.
E It greatly depends on wavelength of light used.
1 i) Absorption of light occurs due to the presence of imperfections in the
atomic structure like vacancies, presence of cluster of atoms etc.
ii) Due to absorption of light by the imperfections, absorption losses occur.
iii) It may be caused by the presence of hydroxyl (or) OH– ions in the fibre.
At 950, 1250, 1380 nm, the absorption increases drastically. Hydroxyl
ions absorb the light in these wavelengths.

ii) Scattering Losses

Scattering of light takes place in the optical fibres for two reasons, (i)Rayleigh
scattering and (ii) imperfection scattering. The optical fibres are made of glass. Due
to the microscopic density variation in glass, a portion of light is scattered. This
type of scattering is called Rayleigh’s scattering and is proportional to fourth power
of the wavelength (l4). Hence, this loss depends on the wavelength of the light
used.

1
Rayleigh scattering Loss 
4

The irregularity in the atomic arrangement at the core-cladding interface acts

as an imperfection. The scattering of light from this imperfection is said to be
imperfection scattering. Due to the imperfection scattering of light, there is a loss
of optical signal. This loss is said to be scattering loss.

iii) Radiation or bending Losses

Radiative loss occurs in fibers, due to bending of finite radius of curvature
in optical fibers.
It is classified according to the bend radius of curvature.
(i) Macroscopic bending losses
(ii) Microscopic bending losses
i) Macroscopic bending losses
If the radius of curvature of bend is greater than the fibre diameter,
macroscopic bending losses occurs. It arises when a fibre cable bends at the corner.

d
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At these corners the light will not satisfy the condition for total internal reflection
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and hence it escapes out from the fiber (Fig.1.10). L
Cladding E
1

Core

Escaping
ray

Fig. 1.10. Macroscopic ben

ii) Microscopic bend loss
Micro-bend losses are caused due to micro-bends inside the fibre as shown
in Fig. 1.11. This micro bends in fibre appears due to non uniform pressures created
during the fabrication of the fibre.
Microscopic
Cladding bends

Core

Escaping ray
Fig. 1.11. Microscopic bend
Micro-bend losses can be minimised by extruding a compressible jacket
over the fibre. In such cases, even when the external forces are applied, the jacket
will be deformed but the fibre will tend to stay relatively straight and safe, without
causing more loss.

1.10 DISPERSION LOSSES

The optical signal becomes increasingly distorted as it travels along a
fiber. This distortion is due to dispersion effect.
When an optical signal (or) pulse is sent into the fibre, the pulse spreads
(or) broaden as it propagates through the fibre. This phenomenon is called dispersion.
 1.18 Engineering Physics
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L i. Modal dispersion
E ii. Material dispersion and
1 iii. Wave guide dispersion
i. Modal dispersion
Modal dispersion occurs in fibres that have more than one mode of
propagation.
Cladding

1

2
Core
Fig. 1.12 Modal dispersion
In multimode fibres, due to different wavelength and velocities, each mode
take different time to reach the destination. This kind of dispersion is called
intermodal dispersion. It results in the elongation of data in the pulse.
ii. Chromatic / Material dispersion
Material dispersion occurs due to the variation of refractive index of the
material with wavelength of the light used. Generally, light waves of different
wavelength travel at different speed in a medium as shown in Fig.1.17.

1

2
Cladding
Core

Fig. 1.13. Material dispersion

iii. Wave guide dispersion
Wave guide dispersion occurs only in the fibres with single mode.
The wave guide dispersion arises due to the guiding property of the fibre
and due to their different angles at which they incident at the core-cladding interface
of the fibre.
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.19
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1
1
2

Fig. 1.14 Wave guide dispersions

Among the three dispersions

Intermodal dispersion > Material dispersion > Wave guide dispersion

1.11 SPLICING
So far we have discussed about the various types of fibers and the
propagation of light through them. Suppose if we want to carry the informations
(via light) for a longer distance, then we have to connect one fiber with the other
so that the losses can be minimised. The process of joining two fibers is called
Splicing.
Before connecting one fiber with the other fiber one must decide whether the
joint is a permanent (or) temporary. Based on this, we have two types of joints,
viz.,
(i) Splices – For permanent joints and
(ii) Connectors – For temporary joints.
Though we connect the fibers in both the ways, we will have some losses
due to (a) misalignment of two fibers called Extrinsic loss and (b) due to irregularity
in fiber construction called intrinsic losses.

1.12 FIBRE SPLICES

Types of splices
Fibre splices are classified into two types, viz.,

(i) Mechanical splices and

(ii) Fusion splices

 1.20 Engineering Physics
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L 1. Elast omet r ic splice : It
E consists of an elastomer (a rubber like
1 material). A hole is cut into it as shown
in Fig.1.16, so has to insert the fibers.
The elastomer is covered by a glass sleeve
with ends in such a way that it aligns the
fibers into the elastometric splice. Fig. 1.16

The aligned fibers can be connected well into the splice with an adhesive
that may serve as an index matching gel. Thus the fibers are connected.
(2) Four rod splice : This setup consists of four glass rods as shown in
Fig.1.17, to hold the fibers firmly. These rods curve outward slightly at the ends
so that fibers can be easily inserted into it. These glass rods are holded
Four Glass Rods
by a steel sleeve. While connecting
Fiber 1
Fiber 2 the fibers say fiber-1 and fiber-2,
the fibers are inserted into the gap
between the four rods and are
Fig. 1.17
crimped (pressed) over the silicon
pieces. Thus the fibers are connected. An adhesive (or) matching gel provides
more grip to hold the fibers into the splice.
(ii) Fusion splices
Here two ends of the fiber
is fused together with the help of
a special equipment, using a high
voltage electric arc as shown in
Fig.1.18, hence these splices are Fig. 1.18
called fusion splices.
Here the losses are minimised due to self-alignment system.

1.14 FIBRE CONNECTORS

Types of Connectors
Coupling of light energy from one fiber to other fiber can be made by using
two types connectors viz.,
(i) Butt-Joint connectors
(ii) Expanded beam connectors.
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(i) Butt-Joint Connectors
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The butt-joint alignment type connectors are used in both single and multimode L
fiber system. The butt-joint connectors has two types of mechanism by which the E
fibers can be connected, viz., 1
(1) Straight sleeve as shown in Fig.1.19.
(2) Tapered sleeve as shown in Fig.1.20.

Fig.1.19 Straight sleeve Fig. 1.20 Tapered sleeve

Both the straight sleeve and the tapered sleeve connectors are made up of
a special type of material called ferrule, composing of metal (or) glass (or) plastic
materials. The only difference in the tapered sleeve connector is the ferrules and
the alignment sleeve are tapered.
Connection : The fiber is send into the drilled hole of the ferrule and
are aligned properly with the help of the alignment sleeve. The distance between
the fibers is minimised by adjusting the alignment sleeve and the guide ring, and is
used to match the ends of the fibers. Once the matching was done, the light from
one fiber can be easily coupled to the other fiber with minimum losses.

(ii) Expanded beam connectors

Fig. 1.21
Fig.1.21 shows the expanded beam connector arrangement. It consists of a
collimating lens at the end of transmitting fiber and focussing lens at entrance of
the receiving fiber. The fiber to lens distance is equal to the focal length of the
lens.
 1.22 Engineering Physics
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L collimating lens. The collimating lens makes the beam parallel and is focussed into
E the focussing lens. After passing through the focussing lens, the light is coupled
into the receiving fiber without any loss. Thus the loss is minimised.
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1.15 REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD SPLICES AND CONNECTOR
The following are the requirements for a good splice and connector.
(i) Coupling losses should be low.
(ii) Connectors of same type should be used.
(iii) Connector joint should not be affected by temperature, dust and moisture.
(iv) Cost should be low.

1.16 FIBRE OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

An optical fibre communication system consists of three important parts
i) Transmitter,
ii) Optical fibre,
iii) Receiver as shown in Fig. 1.22
a. Information signal source
The information signal source may be voice, music, video signals etc, which
is in the analog form to be transmitted, is converted from Analog signal to electrical
signal.

Fig. 1.22 Fibre optical communication system

Fibre Optics and its applications 1.23
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b. Transmitter
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The transmitter consists of a drive circuit and a light source. The drive circuit L
converts the electric input signal into digital pulses and the light source converts E
that into optical pulses. The light source usually used is LED. Here the electric
pulses modulate the intensity of light source (Laser (or) LED) and are focussed 1
onto the optical fibre.
c. Optical fibre
It acts as a waveguide and transmits the optical pulses towards the receiver
based on the principle of total internal reflection.
d. Receiver
The photo detector is a receiver which receives the optical pulses and converts
it into electrical pulses. Further the signals are amplified by an amplifier. These
electrical signals are decoded (i.e.) converted from digital to analog signals. Thus
the original electrical signal is obtained in analog form, with the same information.
In this way information is transmitted from one end to other end through
optical fibres.

Advantages of fiber optic communication

1) High bandwidth
Large number of signals can be transmitted simultaneously.
2) Small size and weight
Due to small diameter they are light in weight.
3) Economic
They are made up of silica, so they are cheap.
4) Less cross talk
As optical fibers are dielectric, they are free from electromagnetic waves,
so cross talk is absent.
5) Longer life span
They are more reliable and have a long life span. Hence, they can be
maintained easily.
6) Transmission loss is less.
 1.24 Engineering Physics
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D 1.17 FIBRE OPTIC SENSORS
U
L
E Fibre optic sensor is a transducer which can convert various input variables
(physical quantity) into an electrical signal in a measurable form. The application
1 of fibre optic sensors are increased due to low cost and improved quality than the
traditional sensors. The fibre optic sensors are used for measuring and sensing
various parameters like temperature, electric field, magnetic field, current, humidity,
acoustic vibrations and so on.
The major advantages of using optical fibres in sensing applications are,
1. They are light in weight and are small in size.
2. They have good geometrical flexibility.
3. Fibre optic sensors are free from the risk of sparks since, they are made
of silica.
4. They are electrically passive ( i.e.) they are immune to electromagnetic
interference and also do not distort due to the surrounding electrical and
magnetic fields.
5. These sensors have large bandwidth and are highly sensitive.
Types of sensors
There are two types of sensors,
(i). Intrinsic sensors (or) Active sensors.
(ii). Extrinsic sensors (or) Passive sensors.
(i) Intrinsic sensors
In intrinsic sensors, the measured quantity acts directly on the fibre itself and
produces a change in the transmission characteristics.
Example : Temperature sensor
(ii) Extrinsic sensors
In extrinsic sensors, the interaction between the light and the measured
quantity takes place outside the fibre. In this type of sensors, the fibre acts merely
as a wave guide. This type of sensors has a sensor head, and the sensed optical
signal will be transferred to the measurement point with low attenuation and
increased mechanical stability for signal processing.
Example : Displacement sensor
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.25
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1.18 DISPLACEMENT SENSOR
U
Definition L
E
This sensor is used to sense and measure the displacement of the object.
Principle 1

The intensity modulation of the transmitted light beam is used to make a

measurement of the displacement.
Construction
The (Fig.1.23) shows the arrangement of displacement sensor. In this
type of sensor, one end of the transmitting fibre is coupled to a laser source and
the other free end is made to a face a target at a distance x metre.
Similarly, one end of the receiving fibre is connected to a detector and its
free end is made to face the same target.
Working
A beam of light is made to fall over the target at a distance x metre from
the transmitting end of the fibre. The light after getting reflected from the target
is collected by the detecting fibre and is detected by the detector. Hence, the
displacement of an object is related to the intensity of the light arriving at the
detector. Thus, there will be either an increase in intensity or decrease in intensity
depending on whether the distance of the target decreases or increases. Hence,
the position of the target can be measured using the optical detector.

Fig. 1.23 Displacement sensor

To increase the sensitivity of the sensor, the axis of the transmitting fibre
and the receiving fibre must be in a specific angle with respect to one another
and also to the target.
 1.26 Engineering Physics
M
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D 1.18.1 Temperature sensor
U
L Definition
E
Temperature sensor is a sensor used to sense and measure the temperature
1 of an object.
Principle
The temperature is measured by the intensity modulation of the reflected light
from the target (bimetallic strip). Depending on the curvature of the bimetallic strip
due to change in temperature the amount of reflected light also varies in a linear
manner. The change in intensity of the reflected light is directly proportional to
the change in temperature.
Construction

Fig. 1.24 Intensity modulated

temperature sensor
Fig.1.24 shows the intensity modulated temperature sensor. Here the
bimetallic strip acts as the sensing element. It consists of steel and brass which
are welded together to form a strip.
The linear expansivity will be on the
outside of the arc when the strip is heated. The
strip is attached to a bifurcated reflective fibre
optic probe. The strip is designed to move
continuously and its movement is directly
proportional to temperature.
Working
The light from the light source is
transmitted through the multimode fibre bundle
and is made to incident on the bimetallic strip.
Its shape is now changed due to increase of Fig. 1.25 Response of the
temperature. temperature sensor
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.27
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The reflected light is collected by another multimode fibre bundle and given U
to the photo detector. L
E
The amount of the reflected light is converted into voltage by the photo diode
or photovoltaic cell detector. Fig.1.25 shows the linear response of this temperature 1
sensor. The amount of light reflected decreases with the increase of temperature.
So that the output of the photo diode decreases with the increase of temperature.
The output of the photo diode is calibrated in terms of temperature.
1.19 FIBRE ENDOSCOPE
The fibre endoscope is a kind of medical diagnosing instrument. Optical
fibres are employed in an effective manner for endoscopy and hence, the
terminology optical fibre endoscope. It is used to view the internal parts of the
human body.
Outer fibre conduct
light to object

Object

Inner fibre conduct

image to observer

Fig. 1.26 Fibre endoscope

Construction and working
The construction diagram of a fibre endoscope is shown in Fig.1.26. The
fibre endoscope uses a bundle of flexible fibres. It consists of two fibres, namely,
inner and outer fibre. The outer fibre illuminates the inner structure of the object
under study, while the inner fibre is used to collect the reflected light from the
area. Thus, one can view the inner structure of the object.
The optical light source is attached at the viewing end of the endoscope.
The optical arrangements, which are used to collect and view the object, are
arranged at the respective fibre ends. One can also achieve a better imaging of
the object by interfacing a telescope system at the internal part of the endoscope.
 1.28 Engineering Physics
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D Applications
U
L 1 It is used to study the interior of the lungs and the other parts of the
E human body that cannot be viewed directly.
1 2 It can also be used to study the tissues and blood vessels far below the
skin.
1.20 BROADBAND COMMUNICATION (QUALITATIVE)
Broadband communication
Broadband communication refers to the high-speed transmission of data,
voice, and video over a wide range of frequencies. It allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals or channels with faster and more efficient
communication compared to traditional narrowband methods.
Broadband communication is essential for modern telecommunications and
the internet, as it enables the rapid exchange of large amounts of information.
Internet protocol for broadband communication
Internet Protocol (IP) is a fundamental protocol used in broadband
communication and is the foundation of the modern internet. It provides a set of
rules and conventions for sending and receiving data packets across networks, which
enables the communication between devices and systems.
IP is essential for routing and addressing data packets, ensuring that they
reach their intended destinations.
Technologies used
Various technologies are used for broadband communication, viz.,
(i) Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
(ii) Cable modems
(iii) Fiber-optic communication
(iv) Satellite communication
(v) Wireless Broad band technologies.
(i) DSL
Digital Subscriber Line technology uses existing telephone lines to
transmit data at high speeds. It allows for simultaneous voice and data
transmission over the same line.
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.29
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There are different variants of DSL, viz., Asymmetric DSL (ADSL) and Very
U
High Bitrate DSL (VDSL), which offer varying upload and download speeds. L
(ii) Cable Modems E

Cable broadband utilizes existing cable television infrastructure to provide 1

high-speed internet access.
It offers faster speeds compared to traditional dial-up connections.
(iii) Fiber Optic communication
Fiber-optic communication is a key component of modern broadband
networks. It involves the use of thin strands of glass or plastic to transmit
data as pulses of light.
Fiber-optic cables offer extremely high data rates, low latency, and resistance
to electromagnetic interference.
(iv) Satellite Communication
Satellite broadband communication involves transmitting and receiving
data via satellite.
It is often used in rural and remote areas where laying physical cables is
impractical. Satellite broadband can provide internet access to areas with limited
infrastructure.
(v)Wireless Broadband technologies
Wireless broadband technologies, like Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) and cellular
networks (3G, 4G, and 5G), provide high-speed internet access without the need
for physical cables.
These technologies are particularly useful for mobile devices, networking in
homes, businesses, public spaces, etc.
Types
There are different types of broad band communication systems. Let us
discuss few of them as follows.
(i)Broadband over Power Lines (BPL)
BPL involves using electrical power lines to transmit data signals. BPL
adoption has been limited due to technical challenges and interference concerns.
 1.30 Engineering Physics
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D (ii) Point-to-Point Wireless
U
L This involves using specialized equipment to create direct wireless links
E between two points.
1 It’s often used for long-distance connections between buildings or locations.
(iii) WiMAX
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is a wireless
broadband technology that offers high-speed internet access over relatively large
areas. It’s commonly used in areas where traditional wired infrastructure is lacking.
(iv) Millimeter Wave (mmWave)
This is a high-frequency wireless technology that is part of the 5G network.
It offers extremely high data rates but is limited by shorter transmission distances
and susceptibility to obstacles.
(v) DSL Over Power Lines (DPL)
Similar to BPL, this technology aims to transmit DSL signals over existing
power lines. It’s been explored as a potential way to provide high-speed internet
in areas with limited infrastructure.
Advantages
1. High Data Rates
Broadband communication provides significantly higher data transmission rates
compared to narrowband communication. This high-speed capability is crucial for
applications such as streaming high-definition video, online gaming, video conferencing,
and large file downloads.
2. Multiple Users and Applications
Broadband systems can accommodate multiple users and diverse applications
simultaneously. This is essential in today’s interconnected world, where numerous
devices and services require constant and fast data exchange.
3. Modulation
Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal’s properties, such as
amplitude, frequency, or phase, to encode information Different modulation techniques,
like Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM), and Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation (QAM), are used to achieve efficient data transmission.
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.31
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4. Multiplexing
U
Multiplexing combines multiple signals into a single composite signal for L
transmission over a shared medium. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM), Frequency E
Division Multiplexing (FDM), and Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) are common 1
multiplexing techniques used in broadband systems.

Disadvantages
1. Safety measures such as Encryption, firewalls, etc are essential to
protect data and ensure the privacy and integrity of communication
within the broadband system.
2. Network Management and Monitoring should be made with the aid of
Tools and protocols to monitor and manage the network, diagnose
issues, and ensure smooth operation.
3. The choice of technology often depends on factors such as geographic
location, available infrastructure, data requirements, etc.
4. As technology continues to evolve, new broadband communication
methods may emerge to meet the increasing demands for high-speed
data transmission.
Applications
Broadband communication enables a wide range of applications viz.
1. Online gaming
2. Video streaming
3. Telemedicine
4. Remote networking
5. Smart home devices
6. Cloud computing etc.

Future Trends
The evolution of broadband communication continues with the deployment of
advanced technologies like 5G networks, which promise even faster speeds, lower
latency, and greater capacity for connecting devices.
Broadband communication has revolutionized the way we communicate, work,
and access information, playing a pivotal role in shaping modern society and the
digital economy.
 1.32 Engineering Physics
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U LIST OF FORMULAE
L
E 1. Band gap energy (Eg) = h
1 hc
=

hc
2. Wavelength of light emitted is  = E
g

3. Numerical aperature of the optical fibre (NA) = n12  n 22

4. Acceptance angle of the fibre (i) = sin–1 (NA)

5. Critical angle of the fibre (c) = sin

1 LM n OP
2
Nn Q
1

6. Relation between (NA) and fractional index change () NA = n1 2

n1  n 2
7. Fractional index  =
n1
LM d  NA OP
8. No. of modes for step index fibre (Nstep) =
4.9
N  Q
2
( N step )
9. Number of modes for graded index fibre (Ngrad) =
2
LMd  NA OP
Ngrad =
4.9 
N  Q
2
Pout
10. Power loss (PL) = 10 log P dB
in
Constant Values
Planck’s constant (h) = 6.625  10–34
Velocity of light (C) = 3  108 m/sec
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.33
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SOLVED PROBLEMS U
L
1. A Silica optical fiber has a core refractive index of 1.50 and a cladding E
refractive index of 1.47. Determine (a) the critical angle at the core cladding
interface (b)the N.A. of the fiber and (c) the acceptance angle in the air 1
for the fiber.
Given data
Refractive index of the core n1 = 1.50 of the cladding n2 = 1.47
Solution
n2
The critical angle,  c = sin–1
n1
1.47
= sin–1
1.50
= 78.52o
The numerical aperture
N.A. = (n12 – n22)1/2
= (1.502 – 1.472)1/2 = 0.30
The acceptance angle in air,
a = sin–1 N.A.
= 17.45o

2. Calculate the total number of guided modes propagating in

a multi mode step index fiber having a diameter of 50m and
numerical aperture of 0.2 and operating at the wavelength
of 1 m.
Given data
Diameter of the fiber d = 50 m = 50  10–6 m
Numerical aperture = 0.2
Wavelength of operation  = 1 m = 1  10–6 m.
Solution

N = 4.9
bd  N. A.g 2
= 4.9
e50  10  0.2j
6
2

= 490
bg 2
e1  10 j 6
2
 1.34 Engineering Physics
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U Hence the fiber can support approximately 490 guided modes. In
L this case of g r a d e d i n d e x f ib e r , t h e n u m b e r o f m o d e s
E
propagated inside the fiber = (N step /2) = 245 only.
1
3. An optical fiber has an acceptance angle of 30o and a core
refractive index of 1.4. Calculate the refractive index of
cladding.
Given data
Refractive index of the core n1 = 1.4.
Acceptance angle a = 30o
Refractive index of the cladding n2 = ?
Solution

2 2
sin a = n1  n 2

sin2 a = n12 – n22

(or) n22 = n12 – sin2 a

= (1.4)2 – sin230o

= 1.96 – 0.25

n22 = 1.71

n2 = 1.71
= 1.3

4. A fiber has a diameter of 6m and its core refractive index is

1.47 and for cladding it is 1.43. How many modes can
propagate into the fiber, if the wave length of the laser source
is 1.5 m?
Given data
Diameter of the fiber d = 6 m = 6  10–6 m
Refractive index of core n1 = 1.47
Refractive index of clodding n2 = 1.43
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.35
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Wavelength of light  = 1.5 m U
= 1.5  10–6 m L
E
Solution
FG d  NA IJ 2
1
We know, Nstep = 4.9
H  K
F 6  10  NA I
4 .9 G
6
2

=
H 1.5  10 JK 6

Where, NA = 1.47 2  1.43 2

= 0.34
F 6  10  0.34 I
= 4.9 G
6
2
2.04  10 6
Nstep
H 1.5  10 JK 6 =
1.5  10 6
 4.9

= 9.06
Nstep = 9 modes
Therefore no. of total modes = 9

5. Calculate the value of fractional index change of an optical

fibre of core with refractive index 1.25 and cladding with
1.2.
Given Data
Refractive index of core n1 = 1.25
Refractive index of cladding n2 = 1.2
Solution
n1  n 2
Fractional index change  =
n1
1.25  1.2
=
1.25
 = 0.0392
Fractional index change  = 0.0392
 1.36 Engineering Physics
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U
L EXERCISE PROBLEMS
E
1 1. Suppose a fiber has a diameter of 5m and its core refractive index
= 1.450 and cladding refractive index = 1.447. If the wavelength of
propagation is 1m, how many modes can be propagated inside the
fiber? (Ans : 1.0646)
2. The relative refractive index difference for an optical fiber is 0.05.
If the entrance end of fiber is facing the air medium and refractive
index of core is 1.46, estimate its numerical aperture.
(Ans : 0.4617)
3. Find the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of an optical
fiber with a refractive index of the core 1.546 and the refractive
index of cladding 1.40. (Ans : NA = 0.6558 ; a = 40.98o)
4. A step-indexed optical fiber has a numerical aperture of 0.16 and a
core refractive index of 1.450. Find the refractive index of the
cladding. (Ans : n2 = 1.441)
5. Find the numerical aperture of the fiber, if the core index is 1.46
and also calculate the critical angle. Given that the refractive index
difference of the optical fiber is 0.02.(Ans : NA = 0.292 ; c78º52')

PART - A QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. Give four applications of fibre optic sensors.

 Fibre optic sensors are used as optical displacement sensors,
which are used to find the displacement of a target along with its
position.
 It is used as fluid level detector.
 It is used to sense the pressure, temperature etc., at any
environment.
 It is also used to measure the number of rotations of the fibre coil
using the instrument called as Gyroscope.
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.37
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2. Explain the basic principle of fibre optic communication. U
Total internal reflection is the principle of fibre optic communication. L
E
Principle : When light travels from a denser to a rarer medium, at
a particular angle of incidence called critical angle, the ray emerges 1
along the surface of separation. When the angle of incidence exceeds
the critical angle, the incident ray is reflected in the same medium
and this phenomenon is called total internal reflection.

3. What are the conditions to be satisfied for total internal

reflection?
Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
The angle of incidence () on core should be greater than the critical
angle (c).i.e.    c The refractive index of the core (n1) should be
greater than the refractive index of the cladding (n2). i.e. n1  n2
4. Define numerical aperture.
Numerical aperture determines the light gathering ability of the
fibre. It is a measure of the amount of light that can be accepted by a
fibre.
Numerical aperture (NA) can also be defined as the sine of the
acceptance angle (a). if n1 and n2 are the refractive index of the core
and cladding respectively. Then
NA = sin a = n1 2  n 2 2
5. Define acceptance angle.
Acceptance angle is the maximum angle to the axis at which light
may enter into the fibre so that it can have total internal reflection
inside the fibre.
6. What is meant by fractional index change? What is the relation
between fractional index change and numerical aperture?
Fractional index change is the ratio of refractive index difference
between the core (n1) and the cladding (n2) to the refractive index of
core.
n1  n 2
(i.e.)  = n1
The relation between NA and is given by NA = n1 2 
 1.38 Engineering Physics
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U 7. Distinguish between step-index and graded index fibres.
L Step-index fibre Graded index fibre
E
The difference in refractive Due to non-uniform refractive
1
indices between the core indices between the core and
and the cladding is obtained the cladding refractive index
in a single step and hence garadually increases from centre
called as step-index fibre. towards interface and hence called
graded -index fibre.

The light rays propagate as The light rays propagation is in

meridinal rays and the form of skew rays and does
pass through fibre axis. not cross the fibre axis.

It follows a Zig-Zag path of It follows a Helical path([Link]

light propagation manner) of light propagation

It has a low bandwidth. It has a high bandwidth.

Distortion is more in Distortion is very less and is

multimode step-index fibre. atmost zero due to self focusing
effect.

8. Differentiate between single mode and multimode fiber.

Single mode fibre Multimode fibre

In single mode fibre only one The fibre in this case allows large
mode can be propagated. number of modes of light to
propagate through it.

The single mode fibre has Here, since the core diameter is
a smaller core diameter and large, the core and cladding
difference in refractive index refractive index difference is also
of core and cladding is small. large.
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.39
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9. What are the losses that occurs during optical fiber U
communication. L
E
During the transmission of light through the optical fiber, three
major losses will occur, viz., attenuation, distorsion and 1
dispersion.
Attenuation is mainly caused due to the absorption, scattering
and radiation of light inside the fibers.
Distortion and dispersion occurs due to spreading of light and
also due to manufacturing defects.

10. What is meant by attenuation ?

It is defined as the ratio of the optical power output (P out ) from
a fiber of length ‘L’ to the power input (P in).

10 P
i.e., Attenuation () = log in dB / Km
L Pout
11. How fibres are used as a sensors ?
The fibre optic sensors are used to detect changes in frequency,
intensity, temperature, current, polarization of light waves etc.
A fibre optic sensor modulates the light passing through it,
when it is exposed to change in environment.
12. State some of the applications of optical fibres in medical
field.
1. Fibre optic endoscopes are used in medical diagnosis.
2. It is used to visualize the inner organs of the body.
3. Fibres as endoscopes are used in various medical fields
such as cardioscopy, laproscopy, cytoscopy etc.
13. What is meant by endoscope ?
A medical endoscope is a tubular optical instrument, used to
inspect (or) view the internal parts of human body which are
not visible to the naked eye. The photograph of the internal
parts can also be taken using endoscope.
 1.40 Engineering Physics
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U PART – A POSSIBLE QUESTIONS
L
E
1. Explain the principle of optical fibre. (or) What are the conditions for
1
total internal reflection?

2. Define NA and acceptance angle

3. What are the types of optical fibre based on no. of modes, material
and refractive index profile?

4. What is refractive index profile?

5. Differentiate single mode from multimode fibre

6. Distinguish between step index and graded index fibre

7. What is meant by attenuation? How will you measure attenuation

loss?

8. What are the losses in optical fibre?

9. What is meant by dispersion and mention the different types of it.

10. What is sensor? What are the good conditions for sensor?

11. What is active and passive sensor?

12. Write any 4 major advantages of optical fibre communication.

13. What is fibre optic endoscope?

14. Mention the application of optical fibre.

PART - B QUESTIONS

1. Describe the basic phenomenon in an optical fibre. Derive the

expression for acceptance angle and numerical aperture.
3. D ef i ne t ot al i n t er n al r ef l ect i on? Ar r i v e t he condi t i on f or t ot al
int er nal r eflect ion in an opt ical fibr e.
3. Discuss t he var ious t ypes of opt i cal fibr es.
Fibre Optics and its applications 1.41
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4. Describe the losses that occur is fibre optic communication and U
give the remedies for it. L
E
5. What are the different units of fibre optic communication system?
Explain their functions. 1
6. Explain displacement sensor and temperature sensor ?
7. Describe the construction and working of a medical endoscope and
give its application in medical field.