UNIT-IV: Electronics-I

Power supply, DC power supply: Rectifier: Half wave, Full wave (center-tapped, bridge),
Zener-regulated power supply, A.C and [Link].
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POWER SUPPLY
A power supply is an electrical device or component that provides the required
electrical energy to an electronic or electrical load (the device receiving the power). It
ensures that the connected device gets the correct type of electricity, with the correct
voltage, current, and frequency. Most electronic devices cannot directly use the
electricity from power lines, so the power supply adapts or converts the electrical
energy so the device can operate safely and efficiently.

MAIN FUNCTIONS OF A POWER SUPPLY

1. Conversion of Electrical Energy
The power supply converts electrical energy from one type to another.
Examples:
 AC (Alternating Current) → DC (Direct Current)
Most electronics like phones, radios, and TVs need DC, so the power supply
converts the AC to DC.
 DC → DC Conversion
Sometimes the input DC needs to be stepped down or up (e.g., inside a computer
or car electronics).

2. Voltage Regulation
It provides a steady, constant voltage, even if the input voltage changes.
Example:
A phone charger keeps output at 5V DC, even if the AC voltage fluctuates.

3. Voltage Transformation
It can increase (step-up) or decrease (step-down) voltage levels.
Example:
 Step-down: 230V AC → 12V DC adapter
 Step-up: Inverters convert 12V DC (battery) → 230V AC.

4. Protection
Power supplies often provide:
 Overvoltage protection
 Short-circuit protection
 Current limiting
These protect both the power supply and the device.

WHY IS A POWER SUPPLY IMPORTANT?

Without a power supply:
 Devices could receive too much voltage and get damaged.
 Sensitive electronics would not operate because they need stable DC.
 There would be no way to run electronic devices from standard power outlets.
COMMON TYPES OF POWER SUPPLIES

1. Linear Power Supply

 Uses a transformer to step down AC.
 Produces very clean and stable DC.
 Larger in size and less efficient.
Example:
Old radio chargers, audio amplifiers.

2. Switch Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

 Converts power using high-frequency switching.
 Smaller, lighter, and more efficient.
 Common in most modern electronics.
Examples:
 Laptop chargers
 Desktop PC power supply (PSU)
 Phone chargers

3. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

Acts as a backup when main power fails.
It contains:
 A battery
 An inverter
 A charger
Example:
 Computer UPS used in offices
 Hospital equipment UPS

4. Battery as a Power Supply

Batteries supply DC power without requiring conversion.
Examples:
 AA battery powering toys and remotes
 Car battery supplying 12V DC
 Mobile phone battery supplying 3.7V DC

5. Programmable DC Power Supply

Voltage and current can be set exactly as needed.
Example:
Used in electronics laboratories for circuit testing (e.g., 0–30V, adjustable).

6. Power Supply Unit in Computers (PSU)

A PSU converts AC into multiple DC voltages.
Common outputs:
 3.3V
 5V
 12V
Example:
Desktop computers use an ATX SMPS.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DC POWER SUPPLY
 Stable output voltage
 Low ripple (clean DC)
 Adjustable voltage (optional)
 Overload protection
 Short-circuit protection
 High efficiency (especially SMPS)

USES OF DC POWER SUPPLIES

 Powering electronic circuits
 Charging batteries
 Testing components (LEDs, ICs, motors, sensors)
 Robotics
 Laboratory experiments
 Industrial control systems
 Computer motherboards (require multiple DC voltages)
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RECTIFIER
A rectifier is an electronic circuit or device whose main purpose is to convert
Alternating Current (AC)—which reverses direction periodically—into Direct Current
(DC)—which flows in only one direction. It achieves this conversion by using diodes,
semiconductor components that allow electric current to pass in one direction (forward)
while blocking it in the opposite direction (reverse). Because AC supplied from power
outlets keeps changing direction (positive half-cycle and negative half-cycle), electronic
devices cannot operate directly on this form of power. Almost all electronic systems
require steady, one-directional DC power. A rectifier modifies the AC waveform by
allowing only the positive portions (or flipping the negative portions) so that the output
voltage never reverses direction. Thus, the rectifier’s job is to shape the incoming AC
into a unidirectional (one-way) signal, producing what is known as pulsating DC. This
pulsating DC can later be smoothed and regulated to produce pure, stable DC for
electronic circuits.

How a Rectifier Works

The core of most modern rectifiers is one or more semiconductor diodes. A diode acts
like a one-way valve for electricity, allowing current to flow in the forward direction
but blocking it when it tries to flow in reverse. By strategically arranging diodes in a
circuit, the alternating input voltage is transformed into a pulsating DC output. This
output is then typically smoothed by a filter (like a capacitor) to produce a steady,
constant DC voltage.

Types of Rectifiers
Rectifiers are classified based on their design and operation:
 Half-Wave Rectifier: This simplest type uses a single diode to convert only one-half
(either positive or negative) of the AC input waveform into DC, blocking the other half.
It is less efficient and produces more voltage "ripple".
 Full-Wave Rectifier: This more efficient type utilizes both halves of the AC input
waveform to produce a smoother DC output. There are two common configurations:
 Center-Tapped: Uses a center-tapped transformer and two diodes.
  Bridge Rectifier: The most common type, it uses four diodes in a closed-loop
"bridge" configuration and does not require a special center-tapped transformer,
making it cost-effective and compact.
 Controlled Rectifier: Uses devices like Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) or MOSFETs
instead of simple diodes, allowing the output voltage to be varied and controlled.
 Three-Phase Rectifier: Used in industrial and high-power applications, these use three
or six diodes to convert three-phase AC power, resulting in a very smooth DC output
with minimal ripple.

Common Applications
Rectifiers are used in a wide range of everyday and industrial applications:
 Power Supplies: The primary application, found in phone chargers, laptop adapters,
TVs, and computers to convert wall AC to the DC needed by internal components.
 Battery Charging: Used in vehicles (like in the alternator) and external chargers to
provide the necessary DC for charging batteries.
 Welding Equipment: Bridge rectifiers provide the steady, polarized DC voltage
required for arc welding.
 Radio Systems: Half-wave rectifiers are used as detectors (demodulators) in AM radio
receivers to extract the audio signal from the radio waves.
 HVDC Transmission: High-voltage direct current power transmission systems use
high-power rectifiers to convert AC to DC for efficient long-distance power transfer.
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HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit
A half-wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier and requires only one diode for
the construction of a halfwave rectifier circuit.
A halfwave rectifier circuit consists of three main components as follows:

 A diode
 A transformer
 A resistive load
Working of Half Wave Rectifier
Let us understand how a half-wave rectifier transforms AC into DC.

1. A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the step-down transformer.

The obtained secondary low voltage is applied to the diode.
2. The diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage and
reverse biased during the negative half cycle.
3. The final output voltage waveform is as shown in the figure below:

When the diode is forward biased, it acts as a closed switch. But, during the negative
half cycle of the AC source voltage, diode is reverse biased, it acts as an open switch.
Since no current can flow to the load, the output voltage is equal to zero.
Half Wave Rectifier Waveform
The halfwave rectifier waveform before and after rectification is shown below in the
figure.

The output waveform of a halfwave rectifier is a pulsating DC waveform. Filters in

halfwave rectifiers are used to transform the pulsating waveform into constant DC
waveforms. A capacitor or an inductor can be used as a filter.
Ripple Factor of Half Wave Rectifier
Ripple factor determines how well a halfwave rectifier can convert AC voltage to DC
voltage. The ripple factor of a halfwave rectifier is 1.21.
Efficiency of Halfwave Rectifier
The efficiency of a halfwave rectifier is the ratio of output DC power to the input AC
power. The efficiency of HWR is 40.6%.
Applications of Half Wave Rectifier
Here are a few common applications of half wave rectifiers:
 They are used for signal demodulation purpose
 They are used for rectification applications
 They are used for signal peak applications

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

 Power loss
 Low output voltage
 The output contains a lot of ripples

Significant power is lost while using a half-wave rectifier and is not feasible for
applications that need a smooth and steady supply. For a more smooth and steady
supply, we use the full wave rectifiers.
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FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

A full wave rectifier is defined as a rectifier that converts the complete cycle of
alternating current into pulsating DC. Unlike halfwave rectifiers that utilize only the
halfwave of the input AC cycle, full wave rectifiers utilize the full cycle. The lower
efficiency of the half wave rectifier can be overcome by the full wave rectifier.
Full Wave Rectifier Circuit
The circuit of the full wave rectifier can be constructed in two ways. The first method
uses a centre tapped transformer and two diodes. This arrangement is known as a
centre tapped full wave rectifier. The second method uses a standard transformer with
four diodes arranged as a bridge. This is known as a bridge rectifier.

Centre Tapped Full Wave Rectifier

The circuit of the full wave rectifier consists of a step-down transformer and two diodes
that are connected and centre tapped. The output voltage is obtained across the
connected load resistor.
Working
The input AC supplied to the full wave rectifier is very high. The step-down
transformer in the rectifier circuit converts the high voltage AC into low voltage AC.
The anode of the centre tapped diodes is connected to the transformer’s secondary
winding and connected to the load resistor. During the positive half cycle of the
alternating current, the top half of the secondary winding becomes positive while the
second half of the secondary winding becomes negative.
During the positive half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased as it is connected to the top of
the secondary winding while diode D2 is reverse biased as it is connected to the bottom
of the secondary winding. Due to this, diode D1 will conduct acting as a short circuit
and D2 will not conduct acting as an open circuit
During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased and the diode D2 is
forward biased because the top half of the secondary circuit becomes negative and the
bottom half of the circuit becomes positive. Thus in a full wave rectifiers, DC voltage is
obtained for both positive and negative half cycle.
Rectification Efficiency
The efficiency of the full wave rectifiers is 81.2%.
Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier

 The rectification efficiency of full wave rectifiers is double that of half wave
rectifiers. The efficiency of half wave rectifiers is 40.6% while the rectification
efficiency of full wave rectifiers is 81.2%.
 The ripple factor in full wave rectifiers is low hence a simple filter is required.
The value of ripple factor in full wave rectifier is 0.482 while in half wave rectifier
it is about 1.21.
 The output voltage and the output power obtained in full wave rectifiers are
higher than that obtained using half wave rectifiers.

The only disadvantage of the full wave rectifier is that they need more circuit elements
than the half wave rectifier which makes, making it costlier.

Bridge Rectifier
Among the rectifiers, the bridge rectifier is the most efficient rectifier circuit. We can
define bridge rectifiers as a type of full-wave rectifier that uses four or more diodes in a
bridge circuit configuration to efficiently convert alternating (AC) current to a direct
(DC) current.

Construction
The bridge rectifier circuit is made of four diodes D 1, D2, D3, D4, and a load resistor RL.
The four diodes are connected in a closed-loop configuration to efficiently convert the
alternating current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). The main advantage of this
configuration is the absence of the expensive centre-tapped transformer. Therefore, the
size and cost are reduced.
The input signal is applied across terminals A and B, and the output DC signal is
obtained across the load resistor RL connected between terminals C and D. The four
diodes are arranged in such a way that only two diodes conduct electricity during each
half cycle. D1 and D3 are pairs that conduct electric current during the positive half
cycle/. Likewise, diodes D2 and D4 conduct electric current during a negative half cycle.
Working
When an AC signal is applied across the bridge rectifier, terminal A becomes positive
during the positive half cycle while terminal B becomes negative. This results in diodes
D1 and D3 becoming forward biased while D2 and D4 becoming reverse biased.
The current flow during the positive half-cycle is shown in the figure below:

During the negative half-cycle, terminal B becomes positive while terminal A becomes
negative. This causes diodes D2 and D4 to become forward biased and diode D1 and
D3 to be reverse biased.
The current flow during the negative half cycle is shown in the figure below:

From the figures given above, we notice that the current flow across load resistor R L is
the same during the positive and negative half-cycles. The output DC signal polarity
may be either completely positive or negative. In our case, it is completely positive. If
the diodes’ direction is reversed, we get a complete negative DC voltage.
Thus, a bridge rectifier allows electric current during both positive and negative half
cycles of the input AC signal.
The output waveforms of the bridge rectifier are shown in the below figure.

Characteristics of Bridge Rectifier

Ripple Factor
The smoothness of the output DC signal is measured by a factor known as the ripple
factor. The output DC signal with fewer ripples is considered a smooth DC signal while
the output with high ripples is considered a high pulsating DC signal. For bridge
rectifiers, the ripple factor is 0.48.
Efficiency
The rectifier efficiency determines how efficiently the rectifier converts Alternating
Current (AC) into Direct Current (DC). Rectifier efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
DC output power to the AC input power. The maximum efficiency of a bridge rectifier
is 81.2%.
Advantages
 The efficiency of the bridge rectifier is higher than the efficiency of a half-wave
rectifier. However, the rectifier efficiency of the bridge rectifier and the centre-
tapped full-wave rectifier is the same.
 The DC output signal of the bridge rectifier is smoother than the output DC
signal of a half-wave rectifier.
 In a half-wave rectifier, only half of the input AC signal is used, and the other
half is blocked. Half of the input signal is wasted in a half-wave rectifier.
However, in a bridge rectifier, the electric current is allowed during both positive
and negative half cycles of the input AC signal. Hence, the output DC signal is
almost equal to the input AC signal.
Disadvantages
 The circuit of a bridge rectifier is complex when compared to a half-wave
rectifier and centre-tapped full-wave rectifier. Bridge rectifiers use 4 diodes while
half-wave rectifiers and centre-tapped full wave rectifiers use only two diodes.
 When more diodes are used more power loss occurs. In a centre-tapped full-
wave rectifier, only one diode conducts during each half cycle. But in a bridge
rectifier, two diodes connected in series conduct during each half cycle. Hence,
the voltage drop is higher in a bridge rectifier.

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Voltage Regulator
A voltage regulator is a device that regulates the voltage level. It essentially steps down
the input voltage to the desired level and keeps it at that same level during the supply.
This ensures that even when a load is applied the voltage doesn’t drop. The voltage
regulator is used for two main reasons, and they are:
 To vary or regulate the output voltage
 To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in spite of variations in
the supply voltage.
Voltage regulators are used in computers, power generators, alternators to control the
output of the plant.
Zener Diode
A Zener diode is a special type of diode that is designed to operate in reverse
breakdown region without getting damaged. Unlike a normal diode that only allows
current to flow in one direction, a Zener diode can conduct in the reverse direction
when the applied voltage reaches a specific value called the Zener voltage (Vz).
Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator
There is a series resistor connected to the circuit in order to limit the current into the
diode. It is connected to the positive terminal of the d.c. It works in such a way the
reverse-biased can also work in breakdown conditions. We do not use ordinary junction
diode because the low power rating diode can get damaged when we apply reverse bias
above its breakdown voltage. When the minimum input voltage and the maximum load
current is applied, the Zener diode current should always be minimum.
Since the input voltage and the required output voltage is known, it is easier to choose a
Zener diode with a voltage approximately equal to the load voltage, i.e. VZ = VL.

The value of the series resistor is written as RS = (VL − VZ)IL.

Current through the diode increases when the voltage across the diode tends to increase
which results in the voltage drop across the resistor. Similarly, the current through the
diode decreases when the voltage across the diode tends to decrease. Here, the voltage
drop across the resistor is very less, and the output voltage results normally.
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AC Generator
AC generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The
AC Generator’s input supply is mechanical energy supplied by steam turbines, gas
turbines and combustion engines. The output is alternating electrical power in the form
of alternating voltage and current.
AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,
which states that electromotive force – EMF or voltage – is generated in a current-
carrying conductor that cuts a uniform magnetic field. This can either be achieved by
rotating a conducting coil in a static magnetic field or rotating the magnetic field
containing the stationary conductor. The preferred arrangement is to keep the coil
stationary because it is easier to draw induced alternating current from a stationary
armature coil than from a rotating coil.

The generated EMF depends on the number of armature coil turns, magnetic field
strength, and the speed of the rotating field.
AC Generator Parts and Function

The various parts of an AC generator are:

 Field
 Armature
 Prime Mover
 Rotor
 Stator
 Slip Rings
The following are the functions of each of these components of an AC generator.
Field
The field consists of coils of conductors that receive a voltage from the source and
produce magnetic flux. The magnetic flux in the field cuts the armature to produce a
voltage. This voltage is the output voltage of the AC generator.
Armature
The part of an AC generator in which the voltage is produced is known as an armature.
This component primarily consists of coils of wire that are large enough to carry the
full-load current of the generator.
Prime Mover
The component used to drive the AC generator is known as a prime mover. The prime
mover could either be a diesel engine, a steam turbine, or a motor.
Rotor
The rotating component of the generator is known as a rotor. The generator’s prime
mover drive the rotor.
Stator
The stator is the stationary part of an AC generator. The stator core comprises a
lamination of steel alloys or magnetic iron to minimise the eddy current losses.
Slip Rings
Slip rings are electrical connections used to transfer power to and fro from the rotor of
an AC generator. They are typically designed to conduct the flow of current from a
stationary device to a rotating one.
Working of an AC Generator
When the armature rotates between the poles of the magnet upon an axis perpendicular
to the magnetic field, the flux linkage of the armature changes continuously. As a result,
an electric current flows through the galvanometer and the slip rings and brushes. The
galvanometer swings between positive and negative values. This indicates that there is
an alternating current flowing through the galvanometer. The direction of the induced
current can be identified using Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule.

Advantages of AC Generators over DC Generators

Following are a few advantages of AC generators over DC generators:
 AC generators can be easily stepped up and stepped down through
transformers.
 The transmission link size in AC Generators is thinner because of the step-up
feature.
 Losses in AC generators are relatively lesser than in DC machines
 The size of an AC generator is smaller than a DC generator

DC Generator
A DC generator is an electrical machine whose main function is to convert mechanical
energy into electricity. When the conductor slashes magnetic flux, an emf will be
generated based on the electromagnetic induction principle of Faraday’s Laws. This
electromotive force can cause a flow of current when the conductor circuit is closed.
Parts of a DC Generator

Stator
The main function of the stator is to provide magnetic fields where the coil spins. A
stator includes two magnets with opposite polarities facing each other. These magnets
are located to fit in the region of the rotor.
Rotor
A rotor in a DC machine includes slotted iron laminations with slots that are stacked to
shape a cylindrical armature core. The function of the lamination is to decrease the loss
caused due to eddy current.
Armature Windings
Armature windings are in a closed circuit form and are connected in series to parallel to
enhance the produced current sum.
Yoke
The external structure of the DC generator is known as Yoke. It is made of either cast
iron or steel. It provides the necessary mechanical power for carrying the magnetic flux
given through the poles.
Poles
The function of a pole is to hold the field windings. These windings are wound on poles
and are either connected in series or parallel by the armature windings.
Pole Shoe
Pole shoe is mainly utilized for spreading the magnetic flux to prevent the field coil
from falling.
Commutator
A commutator works like a rectifier that changes AC voltage to DC voltage within the
armature winding. It is designed with a copper segment, and each copper segment is
protected from the other with the help of mica sheets. It is located on the shaft of the
machine.
Brushes
The electrical connections can be ensured between the commutator as well as the
exterior load circuit with the help of brushes.
Working
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we know that when a current-
carrying conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an emf is induced in the
conductor. According to Fleming’s right-hand rule, the direction of the induced current
changes whenever the direction of motion of the conductor changes. Let us consider an
armature rotating clockwise and a conductor at the left moving upwards. When the
armature completes a half rotation, the direction of the motion of the conductor will be
reversed downward. Hence, the direction of the current in every armature will be
alternating. But with a split ring commutator, connections of the armature conductors
get reversed when a current reversal occurs. Therefore, we get a unidirectional current
at the terminals.
Losses in DC Generator
The input power is not fully transformed into the output power in a DC machine. Some
part of input power gets wasted in various forms. In a DC machine, the losses are
broadly classified into four types:

 Copper Loss
Copper loss takes place when the current flows through the winding. These
losses occur due to the resistance in the winding. The copper loss is categorized
into three forms armature loss, the field winding loss and brush contact
resistance loss.

 Core Losses or Iron Losses

Some losses in the iron core occur when the armature rotates in the magnetic
field. These losses are known as core losses. These losses are categorized into two
losses as Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss.