The Psychology of Design
106 Cognitive Biases & Principles That
Affect Your UX
Every time users interact with your product, they:
1. 🙈 Filter the information
2. 🔮 Seek the meaning of it
3. ⏰ Act within a given time
4. 💾 Store bits of the interaction in their memories
So to improve your user experience, you need to understand the biases & heuristics
affecting those four decision-cycle steps.
Below is a list of cognitive biases and design principles (with examples and tips) for each
category. Let’s dive right in.
💾 Memory
Users try to remember what's most important, but their
brain prefers some elements over others.
Provide Exit Points
Invite users to leave your app at the right moment
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Provide Exit Points definition
Exit points are meant to respect people's time. They are opportunities to "put down" the
product when users feel they have reached something. They are critical to an overall
experience when you want to avoid product fatigue and reactance. (Related to: Peak-End
Rule)
Provide Exit Points examples
Duolingo's experimental redesign to provide more exit points:
Duolingo's User Retention: 8 Tactics Tested On 300 Million Users
[Link] Case Study (slide #21)
Mario Kart Tour missed an opportunity to allow players to gracefully leave their app:
6 Ways Mario Kart Tour Triggers You Into Gambling Your Money
[Link] Case Study (slide #10)
If you scroll through the TikTok feed regularly and for long periods, TikTok will eventually
encourage you to leave the app, but the strength of their nudge is weak compared to
the power of the variable reward that's just one flick of the thumb away.
The Psychology Behind TikTok's Addictive Feed
[Link] Case Study (slide #21)
Exit Points - Putting Down the Game, Extra Credits (2015)
Provide Exit Points, Designing Mindfulness (2015)
Peak-End Rule
People judge an experience by its peak and how it ends.
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Peak-End Rule definition
Users don't merely evaluate an experience based on the average or a sum of all the micro-
experiences. Instead, their brain heavily weighs the peaks (high or low) and the end of the
experience. Peaks—when pleasant—often correspond to memorable delighters sprinkled
into the user journey.
Peak-End Rule examples
After you pay to upgrade your account, Zapier shows animated confettis as a way to
celebrate (and rightfully take your focus away from the hundreds of dollars you just
paid!):
9 Ways To Boost SaaS Revenues With A Better Upgrade UX
[Link] Case Study (slide #17)
Duolingo doesn't provide a clear exit point. This makes the "end" of your in-app
experience feel like you're abandoning your learning process (even if you've
achieved your goal):
Duolingo's User Retention: 8 Tactics Tested On 300 Million Users
[Link] Case Study (slide #21)
The last step of Adobe's subscription cancellation flow isn't clear. It pushes for more
product usage while tucking away the confirmation message, which gives a bad last
impression of their product:
Adobe: The Psychology of User Offboarding
[Link] Case Study (slide #21)
Signal missed a big opportunity to "signal" their gratitude after a donation.
Signal: How To Ethically Boost Your Revenues
[Link] Case Study (slide #11)
After you finish charging a Tesla, this redesigned interface provides one last reminder of
what you just accomplished.
Tesla: How To Grow Through Word-of-Mouth
[Link] Case Study (slide #15)
Kahneman, Well-Being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology (1999)
Sensory Appeal
Users engage more with things appealing to multiple senses
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Sensory Appeal definition
Why are we tempted to eat sweets when walking by a bakery in the morning? The smell out
of the oven is strong enough to make us stop. The sights, sounds, feels, tastes, and smells
of products are designed to engage users' senses. And when multiple senses are engaged,
people are more likely to create an emotional connection with the brand.
Sensory Appeal examples
Uber Eats "dry" menu could use sensory appeal to increase desirability:
Uber Eats: How To Ethically Use Scarcity To Increase Sales
[Link] Case Study (slide #11)
Superhuman's experimental redesign could use sounds that act as a reward loop to
reinforce behaviors:
Superhuman's Secret 1-on-1 Onboarding Revealed
[Link] Case Study (slide #15)
● The Science of Sensory Marketing, Harvard Business Review (2015)
● Sensory Branding, Wikipedia (2019)
● An Introduction to Sensory Marketing, Robert Longley (2019)
Zeigarnik Effect
People remember incomplete tasks better than completed ones
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Zeigarnik Effect definition
Lewin’s field theory states that a task in progress creates task-specific tension. This tension
is relieved when the task is completed, but if the task is interrupted, it stays. That tension
makes relevant information more accessible and more easily remembered.
Zeigarnik Effect examples
Duolingo shows you an incomplete progress bar to encourage you to reach your daily
practice goal:
Duolingo's User Retention: 8 Tactics Tested On 300 Million Users
[Link] Case Study (slide #12)
● The Zeigarnik Effect: Why it is so hard to leave things incomplete, Abhishek
Chakraborty (2017)
● Zeigarnik Effect Interruptions (2020)
● Untersuchungen zur Handlungs- und Affektpsychologie. III. Zeigarnik, B. Das
Behalten erledigter und unerledigter Handlungen
Endowment Effect
Users value something more if they feel it's theirs
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Endowment Effect definition
Users are more likely to want to keep something that they own than acquire that same thing
when they don't own it. They tend to overvalue the things they own, regardless of their
objective market value. (Related: Loss Aversion)
Endowment Effect examples
Trello encourages you to personalize your board through a well-timed nudge so that you
perceive it more like "your" workspace:
Trello User Onboarding: 7 Tactics To Inspire You
[Link] Case Study (slide #19)
Blinkist's onboarding gets users to save book preferences to their library to encourage
users stick around until the very end.
One Simple Psychology Framework To Improve Your Onboarding
[Link] Case Study (slide #23)
● Kahneman, Knetsch & Thaler (1990). Experimental Tests of the Endowment Effect
● Kahneman, D., Knetsch, J. L., & Thaler, R. H. (1991). Anomalies: The endowment
effect, loss aversion, and status quo bias.
Chunking
People remember grouped information better
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Chunking definition
In cognitive psychology, chunking is when individual pieces of an information set are broken
down and grouped in a meaningful whole. These chunks bypass the limited working memory
capacity (see Miller's Law) and allow the working memory to be more efficient. Chunks are
easier to retrieve because your brain creates higher-order cognitive representations of the
items within each chunk.
In terms of interface design, it comes down to breaking down steps, text, and interface
elements into smaller pieces so that users can process, understand, and remember
information them better.
Chunking examples
In our product psychology course, we aggregate similar lesson principles in chunks
(modules) to help your learning experience and make it easier to remember the core
concepts (e.g., Module 1: Understand User Behaviors, Module 2: Find The Gaps &
Improve Any Experience, Module 3: Create Delightful Journeys, etc)
The page you're currently reading contains 100+ psychological principles. That's hard to
remember. To help you memorize these principles, we grouped them in 4 categories
(chunks):
1. 🙈 Filter the information
2. 🔮 Seek the meaning of it
3. ⏰ Act within a given time
4. 💾 Store bits of the interaction in their memories
Stripe is a large company with dozens of products and use cases. But Stripe's main
navigation only has 5 simple links and their products are chunked into 3 simple
categories, organized around their users' main jobs-to-be-done:
Chunking, Wikipedia
How Chunking Helps Content Processing, NN/g
Delighters
People remember more unexpected and playful pleasures
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Delighters definition
We remember and respond favorably to small, unexpected, and playful pleasures. But, for
your delighters to have a positive effect, you must first meet or exceed the user’s basic
expectations. Otherwise, that moment will likely fall flat. Also, over time, delighters become
expected features losing that slight edge.
Delighters examples
When the smallest feature can make your whole email life a lot better:
Superhuman's Secret 1-on-1 Onboarding Revealed
[Link] Case Study (slide #25)
The Kano Model - Wikipedia (2021)
Getting real about delightful design - UXPlanet (2017)
Internal Trigger
When users are prompted to take action based on a memory
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Internal Trigger definition
A "trigger" is a prompt of a user to take action. There are two types of triggers:
● external (e.g. emails, mobile notification, billboards, ad) and
● internal (e.g. places, situations, emotions, people).
External triggers are meant to alert people in case of an event. Slowly, by interacting with
external triggers people begin to form associations with internal triggers, which become
attached to existing behaviors and emotions. Soon, people are internally triggered every
time they feel a certain way.
Internal Trigger examples
When you look at your phone and open up Instagram without even thinking...
The Scary Future Of Instagram
[Link] Case Study (slide #6)
15-30% of Duolingo students use the app to "make international travel more enjoyable".
The fear of not understanding important information in a different language, as well
as simply being in an airport, are excellent opportunities to encourage users to
practice a language:
Duolingo's User Retention: 8 Tactics Tested On 300 Million Users
[Link] Case Study (slide #3)
Internal Trigger checklist
Ethical checkpoint:
● Are your external triggers meant to develop a positive habit?
Hooked - Nir Eyal (2014)
Picture Superiority Effect
People remember images more easily than [Link]. Psychologists explain
this by noting that a picture is encoded in memory both as a visual image and as a verbal
label, whereas a word is stored only as [Link]. In UX/UI design and physical
products, designers exploit this by using visuals (photos, icons, charts) to make content
more [Link]. For example, product images, diagrams, or graphics help
users grasp and retain information faster.
● E-commerce product visuals: Online stores use clear product photos so shoppers
recall items and brand features [Link].
● Interface icons: UI icons or symbols (with labels) help users recognize functions
[Link]. For instance, “home” or “search” icons
accelerate navigation by visual recognition.
● Instructional diagrams: Manuals and tutorials pair pictures with steps (physical or
digital) so users remember procedures (e.g. assembly guides with illustrations).
● Road signs & signals: Traffic signs (like a red octagonal STOP sign) convey
meaning instantly without [Link], exploiting visual memory in a
physical environment.
● Infographics & charts: Complex data is rendered as charts or infographics, making
patterns and statistics easier to [Link]
[Link].
● Educational flashcards: Study apps often use image-word flashcards; learners
recall images and associated facts more readily.
● Branding & marketing: Logos, posters, and ads rely on strong visuals (colors,
symbols) so the company or message sticks in memory.
● Design artifacts: In product development, visual artifacts like user-journey maps or
personas help teams remember research [Link].
Method of Loci (Memory Palace)
The Method of Loci is a classic mnemonic device: you associate information with specific
physical or imagined locations (a “memory palace”). In design terms, this means tying
content to places or spatial contexts. For example, an augmented-reality memorization app
called NeverMind lets users “drop” images along a real walking route; this AR memory
palace nearly tripled users’ recall compared to traditional [Link]. By creating
strong spatial associations (real or virtual), designs can leverage our innate navigation skills
to boost memory.
● AR/VR memory apps: Tools like NeverMind use a physical route (the user’s real
environment) as loci, placing data at [Link]. Users later recall
information by “walking” the route mentally.
● Educational tours: Virtual or physical museum/garden tours that link facts to
locations (e.g. plaques or audio-guide stories keyed to exhibits) help visitors
remember content.
● Interactive exhibits: A “memory palace” exhibit might invite users to place personal
memories on a digital map or wall, reinforcing recall through spatial organization.
● Training games: VR training can use rooms or locations filled with mnemonic cues
(e.g. to remember safety procedures at specific factory stations).
● Wayfinding cues: Navigation apps could anchor instructions to landmarks (e.g.
“remember the red bench — that’s the bakery turn”), helping users recall routes.
● Spacial UI organization: Complex dashboards might group related tools in “zones”
of the interface, so users remember features by their on-screen location.
● City scavenger hunts: Gamified experiences that have users attach information to
real-world addresses or objects (e.g. geocaching with trivia) exploit loci for memory.
● Workspace layouts: Physical or virtual workspaces arranged by project (different
tables or tabs as loci) so document or task locations serve as mnemonic anchors.
Shaping
Shaping is a behaviorist concept referring to reinforcing successive approximations toward
a desired [Link]. In UX design, shaping techniques guide users toward a
target behavior by offering incremental rewards or [Link]. Designers
implement shaping through micro-steps and positive reinforcement: each small action gets
confirmation, gently nudging the user closer to a goal. For instance, an app might celebrate
every intermediate task, making progress feel natural and encouraging continued
engagement.
● Gamified progress: Apps award badges or points for each completed step (e.g.
milestones in learning or fitness) to motivate users toward the final objective.
● Progress bars and feedback: Showing “25% complete” or offering praise (“Great
job!”) as users finish subtasks encourages them to keep going.
● Onboarding tutorials: A checklist of small setup tasks (profile info, preferences) that
shows completion rewards (animations, checkmarks) shapes users into learning the
product.
● Tiered rewards programs: Loyalty schemes give small bonuses for initial purchases
that gradually build up to larger rewards, shaping continued use.
● Adaptive difficulty: Educational or training systems increase challenge only as
users master simpler levels, reinforcing good performance along the way.
● Incremental workflows: Complex tasks are broken into micro-tasks; each sub-task
completed triggers a visual or haptic cue, guiding the user through multi-step
processes.
● Habit-building reminders: Apps (e.g. fitness or meditation apps) start with easy
goals and only slowly raise targets as users succeed, reinforcing consistency.
● Email/course drips: Structured content (e.g. learning modules or promotional
emails) delivered in sequence uses anticipation and reward to shape user behavior
over time.
Recognition Over Recall
The Recognition Over Recall principle holds that it’s easier to recognize something (with
cues present) than to remember it from [Link]. Good UX
minimizes memory load by making options visible. For example, rather than forcing users to
recall a command, an interface should display buttons or suggestions. In practice, designers
use elements like history lists, visible menus, and labeled icons so users can recognize the
needed item or action.
● Search history and suggestions: Search engines (Bing, Google) show recent
queries; users simply pick from past searches instead of recalling exact wording
[Link].
● Recently viewed items: E-commerce sites list products the user saw (Amazon’s
homepage shows “Your recently viewed items”) so users recognize and resume
actions without remembering product [Link].
● Visible commands: GUI menus, toolbars and buttons display available actions
(avoid hidden command lines). For example, modern interfaces use visible menus
instead of requiring memorized [Link].
● Autocomplete and autofill: Text fields offer dropdowns of likely inputs (addresses,
contacts, tags), letting users select rather than recall full entries.
● Breadcrumbs navigation: Showing the full path of pages lets users recognize
where they are, without having to remember the trail taken.
● Labeled icons: Pairing icons with text labels (or familiar symbols) ensures users
immediately recognize [Link]. For instance, a shopping cart icon plus
the word “Cart” removes guesswork.
● Favorites/bookmarks: Letting users save items or pages means they recognize and
revisit them later, instead of having to remember them independently.
● Contextual tips: Inline prompts (tooltips, hints, placeholders) show examples of
possible actions, so users recognize options in the moment.
Storytelling Effect
The Storytelling Effect is the phenomenon that narrative information is more memorable
than isolated [Link]. Studies confirm that wrapping content in a
story makes it easier to recall than presenting raw [Link]. Designers leverage
this by framing experiences and information as stories: plots, characters, or scenarios create
emotional engagement, which anchors the message in users’ memory.
● Narrative onboarding: Guiding users through an app as a story (e.g. “Meet Alex, he
needs help...” and the user becomes Alex) makes the onboarding sequence more
engaging and memorable.
● Branded storytelling: Companies tell the brand’s origin or mission as a story on
websites and ads; customers recall the message and values more easily.
● Scenario-based tutorials: Learning modules present information via characters or
real-life scenarios (e.g. training a user on an app by role-playing customer support
scenarios).
● Story-driven tours: Interactive walkthroughs or guided tours (in apps or physical
exhibits) that unfold like a narrative help users remember key points.
● Testimonials and case studies: Framing user reviews as stories (“I struggled
until...” and then “this product changed things by...”) is more impactful than dry
statistics.
● Multimedia narratives: Video or animated content often tells a user story
(problem → solution) so the lessons are better retained.
● Game-like missions: Educational and fitness apps use storylines (adventure quests,
characters) to structure tasks, making learning outcomes stick.
● Rich media content: E-books, comics, or infographics laid out as stories (sequential
panels) help users process and remember facts in order.
Negativity Bias
Negativity Bias is the tendency for negative experiences to have a larger impact on
memory and judgment than positive [Link]. In UX, this means users often
remember and focus on a single flaw or problem more than many [Link].
Designers must thus be vigilant: one error or annoyance (like a confusing step, bug, or harsh
message) can dominate the user’s impression, overshadowing positive aspects.
● Error messages: Warnings and error alerts (especially in red or bold) draw strong
attention; users will remember a crash or mistake far longer than a smoothly
completed task.
● Usability flaws: As NN/g notes, “a single usability flaw…weighs more than the many
positive features”[Link]. Even a small glitch (e.g. a typo, dead link) can upset
users for [Link].
● Content strategy: When conveying information, highlighting potential losses (“Avoid
X risk”) often registers more with users than promoting gains, due to evolutionary
loss aversion.
● Negative reviews: A lone negative review or complaint can dominate perception of a
product, even if most reviews are positive (people dwell on bad comments).
● Redesign warnings: Introducing changes with emphasis on solving problems (e.g.
“We heard your feedback”) acknowledges negativity bias so users feel reassured.
● Security prompts: Fear-based cues (e.g. warning about phishing or data loss) rely
on negativity bias to make users pay attention.
● Rating and feedback: Systems may give extra attention to negative feedback (like
prompting for ratings after a bad experience) because people fixate on problems
more.
● Pixel-perfect UI: Designers follow conventions (e.g. logo placement) and consistent
workflows because any deviation causes disproportionate [Link].
Availability Heuristic
The Availability Heuristic leads people to judge probability or importance by how easily
examples come to [Link]. In product experiences, users will overweight recent,
prominent, or easily recalled information. Designers should be aware that recent or visible
content can seem more relevant or common to users, even if it isn’t statistically so.
● Search suggestions: Showing trending or recent queries (in search bars or e-
commerce filters) takes advantage of availability: users pick what they easily recall
seeing.
● Highlighting new content: News feeds or dashboards often display the latest or
most-viewed items first, because users will likely assume those are most important.
● Popular lists: Labeling content as “Top picks” or “Most popular” uses the availability
heuristic – items users have heard of seem safer or more interesting.
● Recency in UI: Notification systems show the newest alerts on top (e.g. latest
messages, recent activities) assuming users will remember recent events more
vividly.
● Anchoring on examples: When educating users, giving a notable example first can
skew their understanding (e.g. “our top example is…”).
● FAQ/order lists: Placing the most common issues or questions at the top assumes
those will be the first recalled by users.
● Autofill defaults: Pre-populating form fields (like default country) plays to what is
most available or recently used.
● Misestimating risk: If a design topic is trending or heavily covered (e.g. plane crash
in news), users may overestimate its likelihood – designers should provide context or
data to counteract this bias.
Spacing Effect
The Spacing Effect shows that information is retained better if learning is spread out over
time rather than [Link]. Experience designs that space out repeated
exposures help users remember content long-term. This principle is widely used in
educational products and habit-forming features.
● Spaced learning apps: Language and memorization apps (like Duolingo or Anki
flashcards) schedule reviews of material over days or weeks to cement memory.
● Drip content: Online courses and email series deliver lessons or tips in installments
(e.g. one module per day) to leverage spaced repetition.
● Reminder notifications: Apps send follow-up prompts at intervals (e.g. “Remember
to complete X tomorrow!”) instead of all at once.
● Progressive tutorials: Software tutorials release hints or advanced features
gradually as the user becomes ready, rather than teaching everything at once.
● Health regimes: Fitness or wellness apps suggest workouts on a spaced schedule
(e.g. alternate days) to reinforce habits without overload.
● Marketing follow-ups: Promotional campaigns send a sequence of reminders (first
notice, then a delayed reminder) to make offers more memorable.
● Quiz retests: Training platforms retest users on previous lessons after some time
has passed, rather than letting them forget new info.
● Study planning: Learning platforms allow users to plan reviews (e.g. “come back in
3 days”) to optimize retention over time.
Serial Position Effect
The Serial Position Effect describes how people best remember the first (primacy) and last
(recency) items in a sequence, with middle items being more forgettableinteraction-
[Link]. Designers use this by placing important elements at the beginnings or ends of
lists, menus, and content blocks.
● Menus and navigation: Key links are placed first or last. For example, YouTube’s
sidebar menu puts high-frequency items (Home, Subscriptions) at the top and less-
used items (Settings, Help) at the [Link], so
users easily recall where important pages are.
● Homepage layout: Critical headlines or calls-to-action are positioned at the very top
or bottom of a page. Zoom’s website, for instance, features its main heading
prominently first, and its primary buttons (“Plans & Pricing”) last, making them the
most [Link].
● Forms and lists: In long forms or lists of options, ensure the most crucial fields or
choices are at the start or end (not buried in the middle).
● Product listings: E-commerce catalogs often highlight bestsellers or sale items as
the first or last products to catch users’ memory and attention.
● Content ordering: In tutorials or guides, emphasize the first point made and
summarize the final point carefully, as users will recall those over the middle steps.
● Carousel banners: Place the key message or image on the first slide and a strong
closing offer or link on the last slide to harness recall.
● Navigation buttons: “Next” or “Submit” buttons (ends of a process) are often
remembered; designers ensure those final actions are clear.
● Retail endcaps: In physical stores, products placed at the ends of aisles
(beginning/end of a sequence) draw more attention and recall (analogous to digital
prime/recency positions).
Sources: Established UX research and cognitive psychology literatures inform these
principles. For example, Nielsen Norman Group documents how visuals and negativity affect
[Link]; memory science (e.g. studies on stories and recall
[Link] or spaced [Link]) underpins spacing and storytelling
strategies; and classic experiments by Ebbinghaus explain serial position effectsinteraction-
[Link]. These cognitive insights have been applied in countless product designs to
improve user engagement and retention.