Professional Development Course

for Registered Fire Engineer Scheme

Module (B) - Fire Protection System
Topic: Smoke Management Systems

1
Contents

1. Introduction & Smoke Management Strategy

2. Smoke Management System Design Requirements
3. Acceptance Inspections of Smoke Control Systems
1. Introduction & Smoke Management Strategy
Why is smoke control so important
Most fire-related injuries and deaths are attributable to smoke rather than burns
What is smoke ?

The airborne solid and liquid

particulates and gases evolved
when a material undergoes
pyrolysis or combustion,
together with the quantity of air
that is entrained or otherwise
mixed into the mass.

Reference: NFPA® 92 Standard for Smoke Control Systems

Smoke hazard
➢ Toxic gases production
• e.g. CO, pyrolysis particles
➢ Smoke flow follows overall air movement within a building
• e.g. HVAC ducting, corridor, staircase
➢ Reduction of oxygen level
• Suffocation
➢ High temperatures
• Inhalation injury, radiation heat → fire spread
➢ Reduction of visibility
• Hinder evacuation and fire-fighting rescue
Fire plume

Buoyancy
• Force on fluid due to density or temp difference
Entrainment
• Process of air or gases being drawn into a fire or plume
Eddie
• Rotating regions of a fluid

Why study fire plume

• Fire plume upward velocity affect sprinkler water

• Ceiling temperature relates to flashover
• Buoyancy affects smoke extraction
• Entrainment interacts with tenability
Smoke movement

It is important for smoke control

purposes that the definition of
smoke includes the air that is mixed
with the particulates and other gases
because smoke control often
involves exhausting smoke which is
mostly air. Including air as a part of
smoke is also important for tenability
systems.
Smoke movement
Fire development

A fire curve (or time-temperature curve) is a graphical representation showing how temperature
changes over time during a fire.
Flashover

Flashover in fire refers to the sudden and near-simultaneous ignition

of all combustible materials in an enclosed space, leading to full-
room involvement in flames

Flashover typically occurs when:

• Heat builds up in a confined space, radiating from walls, ceilings,

and floors.
• Combustible materials undergo pyrolysis, releasing flammable
gases.
• Temperature reaches the autoignition point of these gases—often
around 500–600°C (932–1,100°F).
• Oxygen is introduced, often through ventilation or openings,
feeding the fire.
Physical mechanism of smoke control

The physical mechanisms of smoke control are:-

(1) Compartmentation
(2) Dilution
(3) Pressurization
(4) Airflow
(5) Buoyancy

Reference: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering (5th Edition)

Methods of Smoke Control
➢ Compartmentation
• Using a system of physical barriers, e.g. walls and doors, etc., to inhibit the
spread of smoke from the fire-affected space to other parts of the buildings

➢ Smoke Dilution
• Deliberately mixing the smoke with sufficient clean air to reduce the hazard
potential
• Using any method of assisting the fire service in removing smoke from a
building when smoke is no longer being produced, i.e. after fire
extinguished
Methods of Smoke Control

➢ Pressurization (Depressurization)
• Smoke control using pressure differentials, where the air pressure in
the spaces being protected is raised above that in the fire zone

➢ Airflows
• Airflow has been used extensively to control smoke flow during fires
in subway, railroad and highway tunnels
Methods of Smoke Control
➢ Buoyancy
• Atria smoke exhaust systems rely on the
buoyancy for a smoke plume to form
above the fire and move the smoke away
from occupants

• Protection from the effects of smoke for

evacuation of occupants and firefighting
operation
2. Smoke Management System Design Requirements
Fire safety requirements in Hong Kong

Fire Safety Objectives

• protection of life of building occupants

Life Safety • minimization of fire spread between fire
compartments
• prevention of building collapse as a result of fire
• facilitation of firefighting and rescue by fire
Property Protection services personnel
• minimization of fire spread between buildings
Considerations of building fire safety in Hong Kong

➢ Location (Zoning Plan)

➢ Compatibility of Occupancies

➢ Passive Provisions

➢ Active Provisions Planning Department - Land Utilization in Hong Kong

➢ Intervention
Prescriptive codes

CoP for Fire Safety in Building 2011 (FS Code)

Use classifications
⚫ Passive fire protection systems, e.g.-

 Means of Escape

 Fire Resisting Construction

 Means of Access

 Fire Safety Management

CoP for Minimum Fire Service Installations & Equipment (FSI Code)
Type of premises
⚫ Active fire protection systems, e.g.-

 Automatic sprinkler system

 Fire hydrant/hose reel system

 Smoke control systems (smoke extraction system, staircase pressurization

system)
Type of smoke management systems in Hong Kong
Passive
• Compartmentation (Walls, Smoke-stop doors, Fire Shuttler)
• Natural Ventilation of Staircase

Active
• Ventilation / Air Conditioning Control (VAC)
• Staircase Pressurization System
• Smoke extraction (Dynamic / Static)

Reference: Design of smoke control systems. Large space buildings.

(Fuel bed controlled fires) - David Ball
Compartmentation

➢ Inhibit the spread of fire (and smoke)

within the building and to the buildings
nearby
➢ FS Code’s Table C1 – Fire Resistance and
Fire Compartment Limitation
Compartmentation

Fire Resistance Rating (FRR)

➢ Provide adequate resistance to the spread of fire and smoke
➢ Fire resistance ratings, X/Y/Z, where:
• X - Stability fire resistance rating (minutes)
• Y - Integrity fire resistance rating (minutes)
• Z - Insulation fire resistance rating (minutes)
➢ The ability to prevent the passage of flames and hot gases
➢ Construction element examples:
• Smoke seal
• Fixed smoke barrier
Natural Ventilation of Staircase

➢ Ventilation of Access Staircase in a Firefighting and Rescue Stairway

(Subsection D19 of FS Code)

➢ Natural ventilation:
1. at each storey above the ground storey, by openings in the
external enclosure wall having a total area of not less than 15% of
the internal area on plan of the access staircase; and
2. at its highest point, by a vent capable of being opened manually or
automatically by a remote control switch and having an area of not
less than 5% of the internal area on plan of the access staircase
Natural Ventilation of Staircase

With natural ventilation

opening on external wall,
≥ 15% of staircase area

Any window not to be top

hung, openable outward ≥
30o without key

Vent at staircase highest point

with area ≥ 5% staircase area,
opened by control switch on
G/F / being opened manually
Natural Ventilation of Staircase

top hung window is not acceptable

Natural Ventilating Opening with non-top hung window on

external wall and openable from inside without using key
and open outward ≥30°

side hung window is acceptable

Natural Ventilation of Staircase

Openable vent with an area

of ≥5% of horizontal cross-
sectional area of the
staircase enclosure provided
at top of stair Remote Control Switch
adjacent to access
doorway on G/F
Ventilation/air Conditioning Control System

FSI Code’s Definitions

• An automatic control system, designed to stop mechanically induced air
movement within a designated fire compartment, actuated by smoke
detectors/the building fire alarm system and provided with a central,
manually operated back up facility
Ventilation/air Conditioning Control System

Part 5.27 of FSI Code

Objective of VAC
➢ To reduce air movement within the compartment on
fire, i.e. to allow smoke to rise and form a layer at
ceiling level which not be disturbed by the
introduction of air into the smoke layer
Ventilation/air Conditioning Control System
4 Types of Control Method
Method “A” If the compartment/unit is provided with a smoke detector automatic fire
alarm system or automatic sprinkler system, on activation of that system all
fans serving the compartment shall be shut down.

Method “B” Smoke detectors of a type suitable for use in air ducts, shall be installed in
the exhaust and/or recirculation ductwork serving the compartment/unit,
which on sensing smoke, will automatically shut down all fans in the
mechanical ventilating system serving the compartment/unit.
Ventilation/air Conditioning Control System
Method of Control
Method “C” The override control can be arranged to completely shut down all the fans
in the building instead of isolated compartments/units, but this could lead
to inconvenience for the building users. The actuation shall be provided by
the building fire alarm system.

Method “D” Smoke detector(s) shall be installed at suitable position(s) under slab/false
ceiling at a space of 250 m2 of net floor area for each detector, which on
actuation will shut down all the fans in the affected compartment.
Ventilation/air Conditioning Control System
Exemption:
(a) Any mechanical ventilating system forming part of the fire service installations and installed
solely for fire protection or fire fighting purposes i.e. staircase pressurization system and
smoke extraction system.
(b) Individual, self contained or split type, direct expansion room cooling units not connected to
ductwork systems.
(c) Minor mechanical ventilating systems which comply with ALL of the following criteria:— (1) all
air distribution ductwork systems are contained within the same compartment. (2) the air flow
rate handled by each air distribution ductwork system does not exceed 1 000 litres per second.
(d) Mechanical ventilating systems handling toxic gas or grease/air mixtures i.e. fume cupboard
ventilation, kitchen ventilation, systems handling toxic gases/explosive gases, etc.
(e) Mechanical ventilating systems where all air is supplied at low level and/or extracted (not
recirculated) at high level.
(f) Individual plant rooms, and individual toilets which are mechanically ventilated directly (i.e.
ventilating system not serving other areas) to outside.
Ventilation/air Conditioning Control System

In addition to Method “A”, Method “B”, Method “C” or Method “D”,

manual override switches shall be provided at the central fire
control panel to allow the engineering staff of the building operator,
or the Fire Services personnel, to switch off the fans for all the
mechanical ventilating systems serving the building in the event of
an emergency.
Ventilation/air Conditioning Control System

For more details and examples:-

➢ FSD Circular Letter No. 1/2019 Ventilation/ Air Conditioning (V/AC)

Control System

➢ This Circular Letter serves to provide a summary of the

requirements of V / AC control system together with a set of
schematic drawings as attached to Annex for reference.
Staircase Pressurization System

What is Staircase Pressurization System (SPS)

➢ A system designed to protect staircases

against the ingress of smoke by
maintaining the air within staircases at
pressures higher than those in adjacent
parts of the building
Staircase Pressurization System
Purposes
➢ Inhibit migration of smoke to staircase, means of escape etc.
➢ Maintain tenable environment in means of escape
➢ Facilitate the fire and rescue operation for firefighting crew
Staircase Pressurization System
Principle
➢ Smoke Control by Pressure differential between barriers
➢ Smoke of low pressure side of the barrier is prevented from migrating to high
pressure side

Figure a – Air flow through the open door Figure b – Pressure difference across staircase and accommodation
Staircase Pressurization System
Normal stack effect Reverse stack effect

When it is cold outside, there is often an upward When the outside air is warmer than the building air,
movement of air within building shafts such as stairwells, downward airflow frequently happens in shafts.
elevator shafts, dumbwaiter shafts, mechanical shafts,
or mail chutes.
Reference: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering (5th Edition)
Staircase Pressurization System
Typical design
Staircase
Air Release Fans Room
Pressurization Fans Room

4/F Close Door Scenario :-

High
Pressure Low • Maintain Positive pressure in
Side Pressure
3/F
Side Staircase
• Prevent smoke spread into staircase
2/F
• Air release helps to keep fire zone in
1/F low pressure

G/F

Staircase Accommodation Area

Staircase Pressurization System
Typical design
Staircase
Air Release Fans Room
Pressurization Fans Room

Open Door Scenario :-

4/F

Maintain Positive Velocity

3/F
from Staircase to
Accommodation to prevent
2/F smoke mitigate to
protected staircase
Positive flow 1/F

G/F

Staircase Accommodation Area

Provision of Staircase Pressurization System
Required for basements of three or more levels where:
(a) no open air access routes for firemen are provided; and
(b) the cubical extent of the basement exceeds 7000 m3; and
(c) the designed fire load of the basement is likely to exceed 1135 MJ/m2*

*common occupancy > 1135 MJ/m2: Industrial/Godown, Retail, Restaurant

Provision of Staircase Pressurization System
Required for Hotels (High/Low Rise) where:
(a) natural venting of staircase is not provided; and
(b) the aggregate area of openable windows of the rooms/units of the building does not
exceed 6.25% of the floor area of those rooms/units, calculated on a floor by floor
basis.
Provision of Staircase Pressurization System
Required for Commercial Buildings - High Rise where:
(a) natural venting of staircase is not provided; and
(b) the aggregate area of openable windows of the rooms/units of the building does not
exceed 6.25% of the floor area of those rooms/units, calculated on a floor by floor basis;
and
(c) the cubical extent of the building exceeds 28,000 m3; and
(d) the designed fire load of the building is likely to exceed 1135 MJ/m2.
Provision of Staircase Pressurization System
➢ According to Building Fire Safety Code, SPS may be considered as one of
compensatory provisions in case of :-
• non-provision or deficiency of emergency vehicular access (EVA) due to low fire risk or
constraints of topographical features [Clause D26.1]
• non-provisional of protected lobby/ventilated staircase in Means of Escape [Clause B10.4]
Design Condition of Pressurization of Staircase
Design Standard :
• BS-5588 Part 4: 1998 - Fire precautions in the design, construction
and use of buildings Part 4: Code of practice for smoke control using
pressure differentials
FSD Circular Letter No. 2/2006:
• It has been modified from 5 to 2 classes
Class A (MoE) :
• Protection of Escape
Class B (MoA) :
• Protection of Firefighting and Rescue Stairway
Staircase Pressurization System
Class A - Protection of Escape
Close Door Scenario Open Door Scenario
Staircase Pressurization System
Class B - Protection of Firefighting and Rescue Stairway
Close Door Scenario Open Door Scenario
Staircase Pressurization System
5.21 of FSI Code
Staircase Pressurization System
Staircase Pressurization System
Design Calculations

Design Standard: BS 5588-4: 1998

(a) Calculation of the supply air flow required for the leakage paths
Staircase Pressurization System
Parallel leakage paths
Staircase Pressurization System
Series leakage paths
Staircase Pressurization System
b. Air supply requirements with all doors closed:
Staircase Pressurization System
b. Air supply requirements with all doors closed:
Leakage via doors and large openings Leakage via windows

Leakage via lift landing doors Leakage via other areas with MV
systems
Staircase Pressurization System
Calculation of the permissible pressure to limit the door opening forces to 100 N
Staircase Pressurization System
Staircase Pressurization System
Staircase Pressurization System Barometric damper

Door Opening Force

• Overpressure device
• Measure after the door
closed for 5 seconds
• Force apply onto the
door handle
Staircase Pressurization System
Staircase Pressurization System
Staircase Pressurization System
Staircase Pressurization System
Staircase Pressurization System
Staircase Pressurization System
Staircase Pressurization System
Dynamic Smoke Extraction System

A mechanical ventilating system

capable of removing smoke and
products of combustion from a
designated fire compartment and
also supplying make-up air in
such a manner as to maintain a
specified smoke free zone below
the smoke layer.
Static Smoke Extraction System
➢ A smoke extraction system utilizing smoke reservoirs; localised ducting;
and permanent openings and/or automatic opening of windows, panels
or external louvres; to remove, on the principles of natural ventilation,
smoke and products of combustion from a designated fire compartment
Provision of Static / Dynamic Smoke Extraction System
For basement > 230 m2: Required for:
(a) any fire compartment exceeding 7000 m3 where the designed fire load is likely to
exceed 1135 MJ/m2, or
(b) industrial basements, or
(c) basements of three or more levels except areas solely for car parking purposes.

For Commercial*/Hotel*/Industrial Building: Required for:

any fire compartment exceeding 7000 m3 in that building where:
(i) the aggregate area of openable windows of the compartment does not exceed
6.25% of the floor area of that compartment, and
(ii) the designed fire load is likely to exceed 1135 MJ/m2
*For commercial and hotel building, more condition applied
Provision of Static / Dynamic Smoke Extraction System

For Commercial/Hotel Building: Required for:

atrium of the building, if the compartment of the atrium exceeds 28000 m3, or any
basement level or floor of building forming part of that compartment which exceeds 7000
m3

For Hotel Building: Required for:

all internal means of escape serving all guest rooms irrespective of the cubical extent of
the building or the volume of the fire compartment on any floor. “Internal means of
escape” for this purpose, means the route leading from the outside of all guest rooms to a
pressurized or naturally ventilated staircase; a protected lobby or open air, unless the
route itself is provided with openable windows communicating to the open air and the
aggregate area of such windows exceeds 6.25% of the floor area of that route
Dynamic Smoke Extraction System
Dynamic Smoke Extraction System
Dynamic Smoke Extraction System
Design Smoke Extraction Rate

(For hotel)
Dynamic Smoke Extraction System

Makeup air
Dynamic Smoke Extraction System

Actuation
Static Smoke Extraction System
Static Smoke Extraction System
Goal of Smoke Control
➢ Modern Smoke Control Systems → Help occupants escape from a
building → not for smoke removal
Tenable Conditions

➢ Smoke layer height: 2 meters

➢ Radiated heat transfer: 2.5 kW/m2
➢ Toxicity: CO < 1,000 ppm
➢ Visibility: 10 meters
➢ Smoke temperature: 60℃

CIBSE Guide E – Figure 6.6 Smoke Control Concept

BD Code – Clause G6.8

Time-line approach

Available Safe Escape Time (ASET )

Required Safe Escape Time (RSET)

BS 7974 – Example of time line comparison between fire development and evacuation/damage to property
3. Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

✓ On-site inspection for installations, function and performance

✓ Document checking (T&C Report, Certificate, etc.)

Reference: FSD Circular Letter No. 1/2015

Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

✓ Installations vs As-fitted Drawings

✓ Functionality vs Design Principle
✓ Performance vs Acceptance Criteria
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

Functional checking Performance checking

Fan Operation Door opening force

Air-intake Airflow

Actuation Pressure-differential in Staircase

Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

Reference: FSD Circular Letter No. 1/2015

Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

✓ Testing & Commissioning (T&C) Checklist

✓ Testing & Commissioning (T&C) Reports
✓ Equipment list & Validity of Products Certificates
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

Equipment List with Valid Certificates

Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

Inspection Acceptance Criteria

Scope Criteria
• Class A :  0.75 m/s
Air flow
• Class B :  2.0 m/s
• 50Pa (across Staircase to Accommodation)
Pressure differential
• 45Pa (Lift Lobby to Accommodation)

Door opening force • 100 N

Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems
➢ 10 measurement points -> Average air flow

Class A :  0.75 m/s

Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

Pressure Differential

• At least 10 mins to establish

steady air condition
• 10% flexibility of system
testing
• Measuring at least 50 mm 50 mm
above floor

Reference: BS-5588-4:1998 Annex E

Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

Air flow
A doorway
• Minimal value shall be met
x x
• At least 10 measurement points
x x
• Reference point should be selected
x x
within 10% of the mean air velocity
x x
• Within 5 seconds to achieve 90% to
110% of the velocity x x

Reference: FSD Circular Letter No. 2/2006

Staircase Pressurization System
• Maximum allowable door opening force limited to 100 N
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

Conformity of Product Approval

Product Specifications Plate Air Release fans

Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

Dynamic smoke extraction system (SES)

• Mechanical ventilation system capable of :- Dynamic smoke extraction
• Removing smoke and products of combustion
• Supplying fresh air
• Maintaining a tenable conditions below smoke layer

High atrium

Underground space
Reference: CIBSE Guide E, 2010
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

• Prescriptive Design
• 8 Air Change per Hour (8 ACH) of the total compartment volume

• Fire Engineering Design

• Design fire size based on the worst-case scenario

• Smoke extraction rate determined by empirical calculations and

computational simulation
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

Verification of the performance of SES

Functionality Performance
Actuation
Total extraction rate
• Smoke detector
• Accumulated fans
• Sprinkler flow switch
Fan operation
Zone extraction rate
• Smoke extraction fan
• Smoke zone extraction rate
• Make-up fan
Associated equipment Flow velocity
• Smoke curtain • Extract grille ≤ 6 m/s
• Motorized fire & smoke damper • Mechanical make-up ≤ 6 m/s
• Make-up door • Natural make-up ≤ 3 m/s
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

Hot smoke Test

• To ensure the satisfactory installation of SES
• To ascertain the performance of SES

Requirements
• Code of practice for inspection, testing and maintenance of installations and
equipment 2022 - Section 2.23
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

Fire Trays Thermocouple Tree Smoke Generator

• Non-contaminating industrial grade methylated spirit (Grade 95)

• Non-toxic oil based smoke generator may be used subject to the agreement of FSD
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

Temporary Protection works to building finishes

Promat board to protect the High temperature fiberglass to

building fabric close to the fire tray protect the services which might
(Insulation protection) be affected by the smoke plume
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

General principle of hot smoke test

Smoke exhaust points Thermocouple tree

Smoke layer by test fire size

Buoyant
Force

Tracer smoke
Headroom ≥ 12m for identification Hot plume Smoke clear height
purpose

Smoke generator Low level

Test fire pool
Make-up air
 Smoke Layer Temp.

Smoke layer above 5.5 m

Ambient Temp.

Recorded temperature reading by thermocouple tree

Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems
Salient point of the tests
Test fire
• At least 1 MW or size agreed by FSD
• Non-contaminating industrial grade methylated spirit

Hot plume temperature

• maintained 10 C or below a temperature rating of
ceiling sprinkler

Tracer smoke
• Non-toxic oil based smoke generator
Reference: AS-4391:1999 Smoke Management Systems – Hot Smoke Test
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

 Prompt actuation of SES

 No impact on the stability of smoke layer

by make-up air. Low-level make-up air &
high-level extract air forming flow path
with “sourcing” effect.

 Designed smoke clear height be

maintained

Reference: Section 2.23 of Code of practice for inspection, testing and maintenance of installations and equipment 2022
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems

 No “stagnant corner” with significant smoke built up

beneath the smoke layer
 No significant disperse of smoke to adjoining smoke
compartment
 No deflection of smoke curtains exceeding the design
limit
 No smoke should re-enter into the building through
building openings or fresh intake louvres

Reference: Section 2.23 of Code of practice for inspection, testing and maintenance of installations and equipment 2022
Acceptance Inspection of Smoke Control Systems
Hot smoke test in a large compartment [video sharing]
Overall Summary

Smoke Management Systems are critical for life safety and property
protection in building fires.
• Smoke Control Principles: Focus on limiting smoke spread, maintaining
tenable conditions, and supporting safe evacuation.
• Physical Mechanisms: Compartmentation, dilution, pressurization,
airflow, and buoyancy
Overall Summary

System Types & Requirements

• Passive Systems: Compartmentation, natural ventilation.

• Active Systems: Ventilation/air conditioning control, staircase

pressurization, smoke extraction (dynamic/static).

• Design Requirements: Compliance with Hong Kong codes (FS

Code, FSI Code), fire resistance ratings, and specific provisions
for different building types.
Overall Summary

Acceptance & Inspection

• Inspection Criteria: Airflow, pressure differential, door

opening force, equipment certification.

• Testing: Functional and performance checks, hot smoke tests

(when required), documentation review.

• Goal: Ensure systems operate as designed to maintain safe

conditions during fire emergencies.
THANK YOU

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