CE-21013 , 22013
STRUCTURES
Semester-II
APPENDIX
A.G.T.I ( Second Year)
Civil Engineering
CONTENT
Chapter (1) Design of Beams
Chapter (2) Columns and Struts for Timber and Steel
Chapter (3) Riveted or Bolted Connections
Chapter (4) Method of Joint and Section
CHAPTER (1 )
Design of Beams
1.1 Introduction
Section Modulus
𝑀
z=
𝑓
M=fz
𝑀
f=
𝑧
z = section modulus
M = bending moment( resisting moment )
f = bending stress
1.2 Theory of Bending
Flexural (or ) Bending Formula
𝑀 𝑓 𝐸
= =
𝐼 𝑦 𝑅
M = moment of resistance or maximum bending moment(in-lb or in-ton)
I = moment of inertia (in4 )
f = unit stress of beam ( lb/in2 or tons/in2 )
y = distance from NA to extreme layer of fibre( in )
R = radius of curvature ( in )
1.3 Deflection of Beam
𝐿 𝐿
Maximum D = 𝑜𝑟
360 480
Moment of Inertia
𝜋 𝑑4
INA =
64
Circle
Elastic Section Modulus for Rectangular Section
𝑏𝑑 2
z=
6
𝐿 𝐿
Allowable Deflection = (or)
360 480
Table(1.1) Deflection found by Coefficient
Table(1.2) Table for British Standard Beams
CHAPTER (2 )
Columns and Struts for Timber and Steel
2.1 Timber Column
P
Slenderness Ratio
𝐿
SR =
𝑑
L = length of column
d = least dimension of column L
𝐿
Short Column < 30
𝑑
Axial Load
d ( smaller )
P=fA
P = axial load
f = stress
A = cross-sectional area
Straight line Formula to find Stress
𝐿
f=𝐶 (1 − )
80 𝑑
Where, f = the maximum permissible unit stress in lb/in 2
C = the maximum allowable stress in lb/in2
L = the unsupported length of the column in inch
d = the least width or diameter of the cross section in inch
2.2 Steel Column
Slenderness Ratio
𝐿
SR =
𝑟
L = length of column
r = radius of gyration
Allowable Compression Stress
𝐿
fca = f ( )
𝑟
𝐿 𝐿 2
When < 120 fca = 17000 – 0.485 ( )
𝑟 𝑟
𝐿 18000
When > 120 fca = 𝐿2
𝑟 1+
18000 𝑟 2
fca = allowable compression stress
2.3 Euler’s Formula for Long Column
𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
P=
𝐿𝑒 2
Where, P = Buckling or Crippling Load
E = Modulus of Elasticity
I = Least Moment of Inertia
Le = Effective Length
End Conditions of Columns
2.4 Rankine or Gordon Rankine’s Formula for Short Column
𝑓𝑐 𝐴
P= L
1+𝑎( e )2
𝑟
Where, P = Crushing or Crippling Load
fc = Stress at yield points of the material in compression
A = Cross sectional area of the column
a = a constant depending on how the column is fixed at the ends
Le = Effective Length or equivalent length of the column
r = Least radius of gyration
Safe Load
𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
Safe Load =
𝐹𝑆
FS = Factor of Safety
2.5 Eccentrically Loaded Column
Equivalent Axial Load
Pe = P1 + ( M x Bx )
Pe = equivalent axial load
P1 = eccentric load
M = bending moment ( M = P1 x e )
E = eccentricity ( distance between axis of column & eccentric load )
Bx = bending factor with respect to X- axis
Bending Factor
𝐴
Bx =
𝑍𝑥𝑥
A = Cross sectional area of the column
Zxx = section modulus about X- axis
Actual Load (Total Load)
Ptotal = P + Pe P = axial load
Actual Stress
𝑃 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
f= - To check column, compare actual stress and allowable stress .
𝐴
2.6 Stress Produced by Eccentrically Load
Ptotal = P + W Ptotal = P1 + W
W = own weight of column
Ptotal = P + P1 + W
Direct Stress
𝑃 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
fd = fd = direct stress
𝐴
Bending Stress
𝑀
fb = fb = bending stress
𝑍
Z = section modulus
For rectangular section,
𝑏𝑑 3
Z=
12
Maximum Stress
fmax = fd + fb fmax = maximum stress
Minimum Stress
fmin = fd - fb fmin = minimum stress
If fb < fd Column is safe
If fmin is positive Column is safe
2.7 Design of Steel Base Plate for Column
Required Area of Base Plate
𝑃
A=
𝑓 𝑏 (𝑎𝑙𝑙 )
A = required area of base plate
P = column load
fb(all) = allowable bearing stress
Area of Base Plate
A=BxC
Actual Bearing Stress
𝑃
fb(act) =
𝐴
If fb(act) < fb(all) base plate size is ok (or) safe
Base Plate Projection
𝐶 –0.95d 𝐵 –0.8b
m= n=
2 2
Take larger value of base plate projection to compute the thickness of
the base plate .
Base Plate Thickness
For allowable extreme fibre stress of steel base plate ,fs =20000 lbs/in2
2
𝑓 𝑏 𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑚 2 2
𝑓 𝑏 𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑛 2
t = (or) t =
6666 6666
For allowable extreme fibre stress of steel base plate ,fs =18000 lbs/in2
2
𝑓 𝑏 𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑚 2 2
𝑓 𝑏 𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑛 2
t = (or) t =
6000 6000
t = thickness of steel base plate
2.8 Design of Beam Bearing Plate
Required Area of Bearing Plate
𝑃
A=
𝑓 𝑏 (𝑎𝑙𝑙 )
A = required area of bearing plate
P = beam load
fb(all) = allowable bearing stress
Area of Bearing Plate
A=BxC
Actual Bearing Stress
𝑃
fb(act) =
𝐴
If fb(act) < fb(all) bearing plate size is ok (or) safe
The value of C is not greater than the wall thickness . The thickness of
bearing plate is not less than 3/8” .
Bearing Plate Projection
𝐵 –0.5b
n=
2
Bearing Plate Thickness
For allowable extreme fibre stress of steel base plate ,fs =20000 lbs/in2
2
𝑓 𝑏 𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑛 2
t =
6666
For allowable extreme fibre stress of steel base plate ,fs =18000 lbs/in2
𝑓 𝑏 𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝑛 2
2
t =
6000
t = thickness of steel bearing plate
CHAPTER (3 )
Riveted or Bolted Connections
3.1 Introduction
Types of Connection
(1) Riveted Connections
(2) Bolted Connections
(3) Welded Connections
3.2 Riveted Connections
Required Number of Rivets
𝑃
n= n = number of rivets
𝑃𝑟
P = load
Pr = strength of one rivet
3.2.1 Types of Rivet Joint
Cover Plate
Tie Plate (or )Main Plate
3.2.2 Arrangement of Rivets
3.2.3 Pitch of Rivet
p = pitch of rivet
e = edge distance of rivet
E = end distance of rivet
g = gauge of rivet
P = load
Maximum Pitch and Minimum Pitch
pmin = 3d pmax < 16t
d = the diameter of rivet
t = the thickness of thinnest plate
pmin = minimum pitch distance
pmax = maximum pitch distance
3.2.4 Diameter of Rivet
d = 1.2 t
d = the diameter of rivet
t = the thickness of steel plate
3.2.5 Failure of Riveted Joint
Single Shear Strength of one Rivet
Ps = fs As
Double Shear Strength of one Rivet
Ps = fs As x 2
𝜋𝑑 2
As =
4
Ps = shear strength of one rivet
fs = allowable shearing stress
As = shear area
d = the diameter of rivet
Bearing Strength of one Rivet
Pb = fb Ab
Ab = d x t
Pb = bearing strength of one rivet
fb = allowable bearing stress
Ab = bearing area
d = the diameter of rivet
t = the thickness of thnner plate
Strength of one Rivet (Pr)
Pr = Ps (or) Pb
Take smaller value of Ps and Pb
Strength of Main Plate
Section(1)For one hole of rivet Section Section(2)For two holes
of rivet
1 1
At = (b – (d + )) x t At = (b – 2(d + )) x t
16 16
Pt1 = ft At Pt2 = ft At + Pr
Section(3)For three holes of rivet
1
At = (b – 3(d + )) x t
16
Pt3 = ft At + 3Pr
Main Plate Strength
Pt = Pt1 (or) Pt2 (or) Pt3
Take smaller value of Pt1 and Pt2 and Pt3 .
Pt1 = tearing strength of plate at section(1)
Pt2 = tearing strength of plate at section(2)
Pt3 = tearing strength of plate at section(3)
ft = allowable tearing stress
At = tearing area
Pr = strength of one rivet
b = width (or) breadth of plate
d = diameter of rivet
t = thickness of plate
Strength of Cover Plate
Section with maximum holes is considered to calculate cover plate
strength .
Section(3)For three holes of rivet
1
Ac = (b – 3(d + )) x t
16
Pc = fc Ac x cover plate number
For single cover plate joint ,
Pc = fc Ac x 1
For double cover plate joint ,
Pc = fc Ac x 2
Maximum Joint Load (or) Maximum Allowable Load
P = n Pr (or) Pt (or) Pc
Take smaller value of nPr and Pt and Pc .
n Pr = total strength of rivet
Pt = main plate strength
Pc = cover plate strength
CHAPTER (4 )
Method of Joint and Section
Different Types of Support Reactions
Static Equilibrium Equations
SFx = 0
SFy = 0
SM = 0
Assumptions for Design
(1) All loadings are applied at the joints.
(2) The members are joined together by smooth pins .
The Method of Joints
If a truss is in equilibrium , then each of its joints is in equilibrium .
Procedure for Analysis
Draw Free-Body Diagram.
If necessary , calculate support reaction by using static equilibrium
equations.
Separate each joint ( Start from joints having at least one known force
and at most two unknown forces).
Calculate member forces by using static equilibrium equations.
Check the results ( Sum of forces in final joint is zero ).
Guidelines for Analysis
Assume unknown member forces to be in tension ( if the result is
positive , assumption is correct . If the result is negative , change arrow
direction ).
For inclined members , make parallegoram by drawing resultant
perpendicular components .
The Method of Sections (Method of Moment)
If a truss is in equilibrium , then each of its segments is in equilibrium .
Procedure for Analysis
Draw Free-Body Diagram.
If necessary, calculate support reaction by using static equilibrium
equations.
Draw cut line through the members where forces are to be determined.
Choose left side section or right side section to calculate the required
member forces .
Assume that unknown member forces at the cut section are tensile
force (If the result is negative, change the arrow direction).
Calculate required member forces by using static equilibrium equations
( for inclined members , make parallegoram by drawing resultant
perpendicular components).