🧠 Week 4 Study Notes: Long-Term Memory (Penny Van Bergen)
🗾 SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. What is long-term memory and how does it differ from working memory?
Long-term memory (LTM) is our enduring store of knowledge.
It stores schemas (mental models) that include knowledge, beliefs, experiences, and
self-concept.
When we learn, we are changing long-term memory.
LTM is unconscious and has unlimited capacity.
Unlike working memory (WM), which is conscious and limited in capacity, LTM can
hold information potentially for life.
2. What are the two main types of long-term memory?
Declarative memory ("knowing that"): facts, concepts, events.
o Semantic memory: general knowledge (e.g., Canberra is capital of Australia).
o Episodic memory: personal, time-stamped experiences (e.g., your 5th
birthday).
Procedural memory ("knowing how"): skills, habits (e.g., riding a bike).
3. What is the difference between semantic and episodic memory?
Semantic: general facts, concepts, not tied to context (e.g., names of planets).
Episodic: personal experiences, context and time specific (e.g., remembering a family
holiday).
Both are forms of declarative memory.
4. What is autobiographical memory and how does it relate to episodic
memory?
Autobiographical memory is largely episodic, with some semantic elements.
It includes memories about oneself and serves:
o Self-concept
o Social bonding (storytelling)
o Problem-solving (learning from past experiences)
5. How does long-term memory develop across the lifespan?
Infants show early signs of LTM (e.g., imitation after delay).
Autobiographical memory begins forming around age 3 to 4.
Memory improves with age, supported by language development and sense of self.
Education expands semantic memory and schemas.
6. What are schemas and how do they help learning?
Schemas are mental structures that organise knowledge.
New info is assimilated (fitted into existing schema) or accommodated (schema is
adjusted).
Well-developed schemas:
o Reduce working memory load
o Improve recall
o Speed up new learning
7. What are some educational strategies linked to long-term memory?
Build prior knowledge to support new learning.
Use experiential learning (e.g., excursions) to tie semantic with autobiographical
memory.
Activate existing schemas to reduce WM load.
Teach for meaning, not just surface recall.
📉 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. Which of the following best defines long-term memory? A. Conscious processing of
new information
B. Temporary recall system
✅ C. Enduring storage of knowledge and experiences
D. A type of sensory memory
2. What is a key difference between episodic and semantic memory? A. Semantic is more
emotional
✅ B. Episodic is time and context-specific; semantic is not
C. Semantic memory fades quicker
D. Episodic memory is more general
3. Which is an example of procedural memory? ✅ A. Riding a bike
B. Naming the planets
C. Remembering your 5th birthday
D. Recalling today’s date
4. Why do very young children experience childhood amnesia? A. They don't want to
remember
✅ B. They lack language and sense of self
C. They don't attend to events
D. Their brains are too small
5. Which type of memory involves facts and general knowledge? A. Episodic
✅ B. Semantic
C. Procedural
D. Emotional
6. Why is it important to activate schemas in teaching? ✅ A. To help students connect new
learning to prior knowledge
B. To reduce effort in tests
C. To memorise word lists
D. To make learning fun
7. What is an educational benefit of experiential learning? A. It makes lessons longer
B. It focuses only on facts
✅ C. It ties learning to personal experience via autobiographical memory
D. It reduces need for tests
Memory Retrieval (Penny Van Bergen)
🗾 SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. What is retrieval and why is it important in learning?
Retrieval is the process of bringing information from long-term
memory into working memory.
It allows us to recall and apply what we’ve previously learned.
Retrieval is reconstructive: we recreate memories using key facts
and fill in gaps using general knowledge.
Practising retrieval strengthens memory pathways and deepens
learning.
2. What are the three types of recall and how do they differ?
Recognition: Identify correct info from options (e.g. multiple
choice).
Prompted recall: Some cues are provided; response must be
generated (e.g. short answer).
Free recall: Few or no cues; full generation required (e.g. essays).
The fewer the cues, the greater the effort required to retrieve
the information.
3. What is retrieval practice and how does it benefit learning?
Retrieval practice involves intentionally recalling information,
not just reviewing it.
It improves long-term retention, strengthens schemas, and
supports future learning.
Effective methods: quizzes, brain dumps, pair discussions,
summarising key points.
Supported by research: Studies show medium to large learning
benefits across K–12 and university.
4. Why do we forget, even though long-term memory is
unlimited?
Encoding failure: Info never reached long-term memory (e.g. lack
of attention).
Retrieval failure: Info is stored but cannot be accessed (e.g. tip-of-
the-tongue).
Interference: Competing info in working memory prevents access.
Decay: Over time, memory traces may weaken or distort.
Reconstruction errors: Memory is altered over time or influenced
by outside info.
5. How should teachers support accurate retrieval in students?
Build strong schemas through deep encoding.
Use clear and helpful memory cues, especially for novices.
Encourage desirable difficulties: make retrieval challenging but
achievable.
Use retrieval practice regularly with a variety of tasks.
Address misconceptions early and promote accurate
reconstructions.
📉 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQs)
1. What does the term 'retrieval' refer to in cognitive psychology?
A. Creating new knowledge
B. Encoding new information
✅ C. Accessing information stored in long-term memory
D. Storing information in sensory memory
2. Which best describes 'prompted recall'? A. Picking the correct
answer from a list
✅ B. Receiving a memory cue and generating a response
C. Writing an essay from memory with no help
D. Memorising a list repeatedly
3. Which type of recall requires the most cognitive effort? A.
Recognition
B. Prompted recall
✅ C. Free recall
D. Spaced repetition
4. What is a key benefit of retrieval practice? A. It weakens less
important memories
✅ B. It strengthens memory traces and improves retention
C. It replaces the need for encoding
D. It helps with physical coordination
5. Why might a student struggle to recall information they once
knew? A. They are too young to remember
✅ B. Retrieval failure or weak memory cues
C. They didn’t study long enough
D. Their long-term memory is full
6. What educational strategy helps reduce forgetting? A. Repeating
lectures without engagement
✅ B. Using regular retrieval practice activities
C. Skipping practice to save time
D. Giving only recognition-based tests
7. Why are misconceptions common in reconstructed memory? A.
Because students are lazy
✅ B. Because gaps are filled using general or incorrect knowledge
C. Because memory is unlimited
D. Because schemas never change
Week 4 – Metacognition
Lecturer: Penny Van Bergen
What is Metacognition?
“Thinking about thinking” — awareness and control of your own
thinking.
Meta = beyond/self-reflective, Cognition = thought.
Like a mission control system: monitors, coordinates, and directs
learning strategies and processes.
Two Components of Metacognition
1. Metacognitive Knowledge (Knowing about learning)
Declarative: Knowing facts about your own learning/memory (“I
have a good memory for facts”).
Procedural: Knowing how to do something (e.g. “I use first-letter
mnemonics to remember lists”).
Conditional: Knowing when and why to use a strategy (e.g.
“Mnemonics are better for facts than concepts”).
2. Metacognitive Regulation (Controlling your learning)
Planning: Choosing appropriate strategies before starting a task.
Monitoring: Checking your understanding and progress during a
task.
Evaluating: Judging how well a strategy worked after the task.
Development Across Age Groups
Early Childhood
Think memory is perfect (passive container model).
Poor self-regulation, overestimate their abilities.
Need teacher to guide and scaffold strategy use.
Middle Childhood
Better awareness of thought/memory.
Still need guidance, but beginning to understand task difficulty.
Can reflect on learning more with instruction.
Adolescence
Understand memory has limits.
Know difference between strategies like repetition and elaboration.
Still variability: some adolescents are great at regulation, others
aren’t.
Adults
Still make errors in judgment (e.g. underestimating task difficulty).
Overconfidence common (“This will take 3 hours” → takes 12).
Prefer tasks that feel easier (fluency illusion), even if they learn
more from harder tasks.
Key Studies & Evidence
Pesica et al. (2016) – Attention in Drawings
Students aged 6–10 asked to draw themselves focused vs
distracted.
Older kids showed more accurate metacognitive awareness (e.g.
posture, emotion).
Shows metacognitive knowledge develops over time.
Mills & Keil – Gumball Machine Study
Kindy, Year 2, Year 4 students rated their knowledge and explained
how gumball machines work.
Kindy students were overconfident and showed stronger “illusion of
explanatory depth.”
Year 4 students had better awareness of what they didn’t know.
Carpenter & Torba – Judgements of Learning
Uni students thought they learned more from easy tasks.
In reality, they learned more from difficult ones (desirable
difficulties).
They also rated “easier” teachers as more effective.
Son & S. (2014) – High School Biology
Students had good awareness of what they knew but failed to study
accordingly.
Knowing what works doesn’t mean students will apply it (gap
between knowledge and regulation).
Metacognitive Strategy Types
1. Encoding/Learning Strategies
Rehearsal (less effective), Organisation, Elaboration.
Aim to strengthen memory and understanding.
2. Metacognitive Strategies
Planning, Monitoring, Evaluating.
Managing self and environment (e.g. using a quiet space).
3. Domain-Specific Strategies
Subject-specific tools (e.g. algorithms in maths).
Not the focus of this lecture.
Educational Implications
Teach metacognition explicitly: explain strategies and when to use
them.
Scaffold early years heavily, as young children lack self-regulation.
Incorporate planning, monitoring, and evaluation steps into tasks.
Ask students to reflect on which strategies worked and why.
Conditional knowledge (when and why to apply strategies) is vital.
Strategy instruction improves academic performance—especially for
low SES and low-achieving students.
Multiple Choice Prep Examples
1. Metacognition is best defined as:
→ Awareness and regulation of cognitive processes ✅
2. Knowing when to use a mnemonic is an example of:
→ Conditional knowledge ✅
3. Gumball study showed that younger children:
→ Were more overconfident in their knowledge ✅
4. Evaluating if a study method worked is:
→ Metacognitive regulation ✅
5. University students thought easy tasks meant more learning
because:
→ Fluency made them feel successful ✅
6. Why is metacognitive knowledge not enough?
→ Because regulation is needed to apply it effectively ✅
7. How should we support metacognition in classrooms?
→ By teaching and embedding strategy use into tasks ✅