Early State Formation

UNIT 5 POLITIES FROM 3RD CENTURY CE

TO 6TH CENTURY CE
Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Rise of Gupta Power
5.3 The Gana-Sangha “Tribal” Polities
5.3.1 Yaudheyas and Malavas
5.3.2 Sanakanikas
5.4 Monarchical Set-up: Samatata and Kamarupa
5.5 Forest Chiefs
5.6 Nature of State under the Guptas
5.7 Rise of Feudatories and Disintegration of Gupta Empire
5.8 Nature of Polities and their Social Origins in South India: Evidence of Puranic
and Epigraphic Sources
5.9 Historical Geography of Peninsular India
5.9.1 The Andhra Region
5.9.2 Karnataka
5.9.3 Maharashtra and North Karnataka
5.9.4 The Tamil Region
5.10 General Remarks on the Historical Geography of Peninsular India
5.11 Summary
5.12 Glossary
5.13 Exercises

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The Indian sub-continent witnessed a prolonged flux in the post-Mauryan period with
no major territorial organisation or major political power exercising control over large
territories like that of the Mauryas (who were indigenous) or Kushanas, the latter
being of central Asian origin. The Guptas were the first indigenous ruling family after
the Mauryas to emerge as a powerful dynasty with a large territorial base in north India
from the fourth to the sixth centuries CE They were also the first major dynasty to have
recorded their ventures (the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudra Gupta) into south
India as invaders raiding the eastern regions of the peninsula right down to the southern
extremity of Andhra, encountering rulers like Hastivarman of Vengi (Salankayana) and
Visnugopa of Kanci (Pallava) probably establishing a line of control meant to be a
show of their prowess and dominance in a changing socio-political scene. With the
Guptas also emerged the first state with a dominant Brahmanical- Puranic ideology
and social institutions establishing the Varna hierarchy. A rich literary tradition in classical
Sanskrit developed and norms were evolved to create a new order in socio- political
organisation based on texts like the Dharma Sastras, which sought to establish the
64 Brahmana- Kshatriya dominance.
Peninsular India seems to have been influenced by these changes in varying degrees Polities from 3rd
Century CE To 6th
during the period from the 3rd to the 6th centuries CE, with the Deccan ( Maharashtra, Century CE
Karnataka and Andhra regions) marking a transition from the intensive commercial
and urban economy of the early historical period (3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE)
towards a new agrarian order and a dominant Brahmanical socio- political organisation.
The Tamil region, on the contrary, had no clear political configurations and was in a
constant state of flux after the decline of the traditional Sangam chiefdoms of the Ceras,
Colas and Pandyas. Till the sixth century CE, i.e. till the emergence of the Pallavas and
Pandyas as the two important kingdoms the Brahmanical tradition remained one of the
competing ideologies for socio- political organisation.
The 3rd century CE signalled the death knell of a great power, the Kushanas in the
northern part of India and in the north western borderland of the subcontinent (about
262 CE). With the decline of the Kushanas, the political scenario was dominated by
numerous independent indigenous powers like the Malavas, the Yaudheyas, the
Arjunayanas and the Madrakas in eastern Punjab and Rajasthan, the Nagas in the
Western Uttar Pradesh, the Maghas at Kausambi and a number of small ‘tribal’ states
and forest kingdoms in the south of Uttar Pradesh. These powers, however, could not
prevent the rise of the Guptas in the middle Ganga valley. The period from 300-600
CE is marked by the domination of the imperial Guptas for nearly two hundred and
fifty years over north India.

5.2 THE RISE OF GUPTA POWER

The foundation of the Gupta power by Chandragupta I seems to have brought the
middle Ganga valley and the region around Pataliputra back to political limelight. During
the rule of the Kushanas, the seat of power was Mathura in the Ganga Yamuna doab.
This shift of geo-political focus is particularly important as being firmly rooted to the
middle Ganga valley, the Guptas sought to exterminate rivals in the Ganga-Yamuna
doab, upper Ganga valley, Punjab and Haryana, central India and Malwa plateau and
tried to expand in the lower Ganga regions. The various powers of the Ganga basin
were mostly monarchical. On the other hand with the exception of Nepal in the north,
it was surrounded on all the three sides by a ring of states which were mostly gana
samgha (translated as republican or oligarchical and often also as ‘tribal’). These gana-
samghas were not guided by Brahmanical ideology of monarchy and were an alternative
to monarchy but gradually the gana-samgha political tradition had to succumb to the
impact of monarchical state system.
In the initial phase of the rise of the Gupta power we find that Chandragupta I, who laid
the foundation of the Gupta empire, married into the Lichchhavi family, once an old,
established gana-samgha of north Bihar (Vaishali in Muzaffarpur). The non- monarchical
character of the lichchhavis was known at least since 6th century BCE This marriage is
attested by a gold coin where we have the representation of the Gupta monarch along
with the Gupta queen Kumaradevi whose Lichchhavi origin is evident from the legend
Lichchhavayah. The marriage finally resulted in the incorporation of the Vaishali region
in the Gupta territory. The discovery of Gupta seals from the Vaishali excavations
points to the creation of provincial administration and a head quarter in Vaishali. The
legend in one of the seals read [V]aisalyadhisthan- adhikarana and has been translated
as ‘the chief of the government of Vaishali (city Magistrate?).’Though the Guptas never
65
Early State Formation directly conquered the non-monarchical clan in north Bihar, the seals indicate the
penetration of Gupta monarchical polity in Vaishali which was a territory of strategic
importance.

5.3 THE GANA-SANGHA “TRIBAL” POLITIES

The Gana-samgha tradition was very much present in the greater portions of the ‘tribal’
belt of Central India, Rajasthan and eastern Punjab prior to the Gupta rule. From the
Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta we learn that non-monarchical groups
like the Malavas (Jaipur area, Rajasthan), Arjunayanas (located in the Delhi- Jaipur-
Agra triangle), Yaudheyas (Bharatpur, Rajasthan), Madrakas (between the rivers
Chenab and Ravi in Pakistan), Abhiras (in western Deccan around Nasik), Prarjuna,
Kakas (near Sanchi), Sanakanikas (near Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh), and Kharaparikas
(possibly in the Damoh district, Madhya Pradesh), paid homage and tribute to
Samudragupta. Thus it appears that in the 4th century CE, Samudragupta’s conquest
resulted in the dissolution of a number of gana-samghas in north India. Though these
were not directly conquered and incorporated in the Gupta realm by Samudragupta,
they no longer figured in any evidence since the time of Chandragupta II. It needs to be
mentioned that though the final blow to the gana-samgha polity, which had held its own
as an alternative to monarchy, was dealt by Samudragupta, the structures of some
early gana-samghas were already undergoing processes of change. These changes
were the result of an overall change in the politico-economic scenario. Their location
upon important networks of communication also accelerated the process of change.
Most of these non-monarchical clans struck coins and the non-monarchical character
of their polity is indicated by the legends on their coins and seals.

5.3.1 Yaudheyas and Malavas

The coins of the Yaudheyas on which the word gana occurs are assignable to the 3rd –
4th century AD. At the same time during this period, the Bijaygadh inscription and a
seal speak of a Maharaja-Mahasenapati and the seal adds Mahakshatrapa to it, as the
head of the Yaudheya republic. The assumption of the Mahakshatrapa title was perhaps
the result of their close association with the Sakas and Kushanas. The Yaudheyas in
this period became a part of the vast network of commerce and the discovery of
thousands of their copper coins and coin moulds from Rohtak in Haryana and from
Sunet in Ludhiana district of the Punjab bear testimony to this. Thus the use of the title
Maharaja may indicate an inclination towards monarchical polity within the broader
framework of non-monarchical polity as they continued to use the term gana, though
its character had necessarily changed. With regard to the Malavas we have a very
interesting inscription from Nandsa (in eastern Rajasthan) dated CE 226. It records
the performance of Ekashashtiratra sacrifice by a scion of the royal Malava family. The
Malavas were claiming a status as high as the Ikshvakus. This may be taken as a step
towards construction of genealogy which is associated with the Brahmanical legitimation
of monarchical power. It is interesting to note that the rulers do not bear any title like
maharaja or rajan. It would appear that the republican traditions were still strong among
the Malavas and no regal titles were permitted to their rulers even when they had
established hereditary dynasties ruling at least for three generations. With their gaining
tributary status during Samudragupta’s time, the area ruled by the Malavas saw the
66
rise of two branches of the Aulikara ruling house in the Dasapura area (present Polities from 3rd
Century CE To 6th
Mandasore in Rajasthan), one group acknowledging the Gupta suzerainty and the Century CE
other remaining independent. The presence of the Aulikara ruling house marked the
end of the non-monarchical Malava ganas.

5.3.2 Sanakanikas
Transformation of non-monarchical polity into monarchical set up could be seen in the
case of the Sanakanikas too. The Sanakanikas were enlisted in the Allahabad Pillar
Inscription with the other ‘tribal’ states. But during the time of Chandragupta II we
have an inscription referring to a Sanakanika maharaja who was a vassal of
Chandragupta II. It is evident from the inscription that both the father and grandfather
of this Sanakanika maharaja were also designated maharaja in the inscription. So
perhaps even during the time of Samudragupta, when the Sanakanikas finally pledged
to pay tribute to the Gupta sovereign, the process of transformation had already begun.

5.4 MONARCHICAL SET-UP: SAMATATA AND

KAMARUPA
In the case of the peripheral regions of the Gupta empire as mentioned in the Allahabad
inscription we find that the rulers of the region are referred to as simply narpatis of a
particular region without even mentioning their names. It is a pointer to the fact that
these rulers were merely chiefs and so did not gain enough attention from the Gupta
ruler to be referred to by name. One may particularly cite the case of Samatata which
perhaps was experiencing rudimentary form of monarchical set up in the 4th century
CE but finally by 6th century CE Samatata definitely experienced monarchical set up as
mentioned in the Gunaigarh copper plate dated 507 CE, Maharaja Vainyagupta was
ruling in the region. Finally in the 7th century CE, Samatata emerges as an independent
monarchical set up, its kings being given the designation of Samatatesvara or Lord of
Samatata. A similar process of consolidation of monarchical state structure is also seen
in Kamarupa in upper Assam. Kamarupa was also one of the frontier states of
Samudragupta in the 4th century CE and perhaps the incipient monarchical state was
put under a ruling family by the Gupta emperor. From the genealogical account given in
the Nidhanpur copper plate of Bhaskarvarman we learn that Pushyavarman was the
first historical ruler of Kamarupa and he may be placed in about 350 CE or a little
earlier. Interestingly Pushyavarman out of his loyalty and devotion to his Gupta overlord
named his son and daughter in law Samudravarman and Dattadevi or Dattavati. Though
Kamarupa was comparatively a small frontier kingdom in the 4th and 5th centuries CE,
in the first half of the 6th century CE, it appears that king Narayanavarman perfomed
two Asvamedha sacrifices which evidently indicates some increase in the power of the
family under him. Perhaps he threw off the yoke of the Guptas around that time.
Kamarupa became powerful under the next king Bhutivarman in about the middle of
the 6th century CE. but even then he was simply called maharaja. The transition from
nrpati to maharaja indicates the gradual crystallisation of the monarchical state structure.
As for the kingdom of Davaka, located in the valley of the Kapili river in modern
Nowgong district, Assam, we have reference to its existence in CE 428 from the
Chinese account of an embassy sent in that year by the king of Ka-Pi-Li. But this
kingdom which was a part of the Gupta empire was incorporated within the kingdom
of Kamarupa perhaps during the time of Bhutivarman. 67
Early State Formation
5.5 FOREST CHIEFS
The Gupta emperor also reduced the forest chiefs (atavikarajas) to the position of his
servants (paricharakikrta). These forest chiefs may conveniently be located in the present
Baghelkhand region. It is obvious that this region was initially outside the purview of a
complex state society. With the penetration of Gupta power in this region, emergence
of a state structure following the pattern of the Gupta administrative system can be
noticed. This is reflected from the Khoh copper plate inscription of Sarvanatha dated
512 CE, belonging to the Uchchakalpa family and another Khoh copper plate inscription
of Samkshobha dated 529 CE belonging to the Parivrajaka family. Both of these ruling
houses were feudatories of the Guptas. Thus the pre-state atavika society ends up
being transformed into a monarchical set up. With monarchical set up, the social structure
naturally became more complex and Brahmanical or Sastric norms were championed.
The Parivrajaka rulers in the atavika area boasted to have upheld and maintained the
varna organisation (varnasrama dharma-sthapana niratena). A complex social structure
can be seen with the creation of agraharas or revenue free settlements in favour of
religious donees. The expansion of agriculture and the advent of the agricultural society
is closely linked with the gradual hardening of the varna- jati organisation. The
Brahmanical or Sastric norms were instruments which provided some integration in a
society with increasing inequality of access to resources, status and power. The transition
from incipient to a mature state was also made possible by the incorporation of the
autochthonous cults into Brahmanical belief systems and also the patronage of the
dominant autochthonous deities by kings. The monarchical polity was expanding and
the final annihilation of the gana samgha system of polity was taking place. It is interesting
to note here that not a single Dharmasastra text, discusses the constitution of the republics
and this silence testifies to the Brahmanical opposition to republics. On the other hand
theoretical treatises of this period display a mature understanding of the elements of a
monarchical state.

5.6 NATURE OF STATE UNDER THE GUPTAS

A distinct feature of the monarchical system under the Guptas was the greater use of
the concept of the divinity of the ruler. Thus Samudragupta is considered as equal to
Kuvera, Varuna, Indra and yama (dhanadavarunendrantakasama), as a being beyond
comprehension (achintyapurusha) and as a deity residing in the terrestrial world
(lokadhamadeva). Manu’s dictum that the king was a great deity in human form is thus
translated here.
From the reign of Chandragupta-I onwards the Guptas took the title of Maharaja
Dhiraj as is known from inscriptions, coin legends and seals. The other titles mentioned
in the Gupta coins and inscriptions are paramarajadhiraja, rajadhirajarishi and
rajarajadhiraja. In the Allahabad pillar inscription Samundragupta is regarded as God
living on Earth. In the genealogical accounts he is referred to as Kuber, Indra, etc.
Hereditary succession was established in this period though the emperor chose the
heir apparent. The Guptas adopted the policy of administrative decentralisation. Several
powers conquered by the Guptas were allowed to function independently. They were
subjugated but were not incorporated into the empire. These feudatories paid tribute
to the Guptas but at times some of them did not mention Guptas as their suzerain in
their official records. The practice of land grants and also grants of villages started
under the Satavahanas and continued under the Guptas. These grants carried with
68
them administrative rights which led to the decentralisation of administrative authority. Polities from 3rd
Century CE To 6th
Rights of subinfeudation were given to the land donees. Visti (force labour) was applied Century CE
to all classes of subjects.
The disintegration of the Gupta Empire was followed by the rise of monarchical states
while the ganas faded into oblivion. These states derived legitimacy from Brahmanical
Puranic ideology and varnasharam dharma. The monarchical state, represented by the
emergence of ruling monarchical lineages, had covered all nuclear regions and had
progressed well into peripheral areas by the end of the Gupta period.

5.7 RISE OF FEUDATORIES AND DISINTEGRATION

OF GUPTA EMPIRE
The Gupta empire divided into provinces and feudatory domains, was internally
weakened by quarrels in the royal household. Hereditary succession in the high official
posts as well as in the families of the feudatory rulers resulted in the tendency to
concentrate power in the hands of certain groups which naturally threatened the stability
of the empire. Ultimately the empire, smarting under the effect of the Huna invasions,
could not effectively check the growth of the power of the feudatory families. Vishnugupta
was the last of the imperial Gupta monarchs. The empire virtually ceased to exist by
the middle of the sixth century CE However the vestiges of the empire could have
continued in an outlying province like Kalinga. The Sumandala inscription of the year
250(CE 569/70) refers to the rule of Prithivi-vigraha in Kalinga rashtra in the Gupta
kingdom. We do not know who was Prithivivigraha’s overlord. The rest of the century
was marked by the rule of Manas in the north and Sailodbhavas in the south.
The Aulikaras and the Maukharis, who had earlier served the Guptas were causing
serious trouble to the Gupta monarch. The record of the Maukhari chief Anantavarman
from the Gaya district, palaeographically datable to about the first half of the 6th century
CE does not either attribute to him the title of a paramount sovereign or refer to the rule
of the Guptas. It appears that Anantavarman declared de facto independence, owing
perhaps a nominal allegiance to the Guptas. The Risthal inscription of Prakashadharman
dated CE 514/515 and Mandasore inscription of Yashodharman dated 531/32 CE,
the Aulikara rulers, suggest that this family had a great role in stemming the Huna
menace in India and weakening the existing Gupta kingdom. The Maukharis probably
extended their power to the region of Uttar Pradesh and established their capital at
Kanauj. They and the family of Krishnagupta, known as the later Guptas became the
two principal powers contending for supremacy in India during the second half of the
sixth century CE. An emerging political force about this time was the dynasty of
Pushpabhuti at Thaneswar in the Ambala district, Haryana. The Maitrakas of Valabhi,
who had been ruling as feudatories from the last quarter of the fifth century, became
independent in the second half of the sixth century and gained importance by the end of
that century. The Gurjaras founded a small kingdom in the Jodhpur area of Rajasthan
by about the middle of the sixth century CE. Another principality around Broach was
carved out by the Gurjaras in about the last quarter of the same century. In the northwest
of the Indian subcontinent, the Sassanians, the local ruling families of the Punjab area,
the group of Kidara and the Hunas dominated in different areas in different times.
Thus the period under review is marked by the spread of monarchical polity. The
political scenario cannot be viewed in terms of a centralised power wielding authority
over large territories. Even the superior political power and position of the Gupta empire 69
Early State Formation did not lead to the establishment of a paramount political power in the subcontinent. At
the close of the sixth century north India experienced the emergence of a number of
ruling houses who were originally vassals of the Guptas in different areas. Though the
strength and power of all these ruling houses varied, some of them made their presence
felt and at the turn of the 7th century north India saw the rise of some very important
powers like the Pushyabhutis, the Maukharis, the Later Guptas. The Maitrakas were
powerful in Western India and in eastern India Bengal emerged for the first time as a
power to reckon with in north Indian politics under Sasanka of Gauda.

MAP 3 : Guptas and Vakatakas (based on R.C. Majumdar (ed.), A Comprehensive History
70 of India, [Link], pt. II CE 300-985, New Delhi, 1982.
 Polities from 3rd
5.8 NATURE OF POLITIES AND THEIR SOCIAL Century CE To 6th
Century CE
ORIGINS IN SOUTH INDIA: EVIDENCE OF
PURANIC AND EPIGRAPHIC SOURCES
In order to understand the nature of the polities and the social origins of the ruling
families which emerged in peninsular India, it is necessary to correlate the evidence
from inscriptions with the Puranic material. The importance of epigraphic sources which
are increasingly available from the 4th century CE and become more numerous in the
early medieval period has been emphasised for reconstructing the historical processes
of the period from the 3rd to the 6th centuries CE. However the importance of early
Purnaic texts (albeit with some interpolations) for the historical processes in the Deccan
and Andhra for the period 3rd to 6th centuries CE. Along with inscriptional evidence
needs to be recognised as the Brahmanical polities of the period invariably followed
the Puranic tradition and religious ideology for legitimising their emergence to power
and territorial authority. However, the concept of territory had not quite crystallised
into cognisible regions with clear limits or boundaries, which could be claimed by any
one of the ruling families that are known from the epigraphic sources, the exception
being the Vakatakas and Kadambas of Maharashtra and Karnataka respectively and
to an extent the Visnukundis of the Andhra region. It becomes necessary, therefore to
adopt a historical geography approach to study the peninsular regions in order to
situate the ruling families in their respective zones, which were constantly fluctuating
due to conflicting interests among them.
Ruling lineages claiming Brahmana origin or connections with the gotras that are
recognised in the gotra lists of the Srauta Sutras emerged in peninsular India,
conspicously in the Deccan plateau and Andhra plains. This is reflected in the inscriptions
of the ruling families. A new term Brahmakshatra/Brahmakshatriya, occurring only once
in the corpus of inscriptions, represents a rather dubious category of social status,
which is claimed by a few of the ruling families like the Visnukundi and the Pallavas,
indicating either the assumption by Brahmanas of Kshatriya functions and status, creating
monarchical states with territorial bases or the local clan or ‘tribal’ chiefs combining the
functions of priest and ruler being described by the term Brahmakshatriya and claiming
territorial authority. In the process they may well have been influenced by the evolution
of monarchical states in the north and the Dharmasastric model of the institution of
kingship.
In the Puranas, the Vamsanucharita sections list the progenitors of the gotras as
descendants of the Ikshvaku or Ila lineages. The epic and Puranic sources refer to the
Kshatropeta dvijas and occasionally to the Brahma Kshatriya. The Kshatropeta dvijas
who, according to the Puranas were brahmanas endowed with kshatra qualities, may
be the same as the Brahmakshatriya of the mid- first millennium CE and early medieval
inscriptions. Some of the lineages with gotra identities cannot be covered by the category
of Brahma Kshatriya. It seems to be an extra constitutional category which evolved
over time (also found in early medieval Rajput inscriptions). There are several
explanations of the term. That the “brahmakshatriyas were originally brahmana families
which changed over to the profession, life and status of kshatriya in course of time; that
the Brahma Kshatriya was a halfway house resulting from matrimonial alliances between
kshatriyas and brahmanas ; that the Brahma Kshatriya was a transitional status which
was seized upon by the new royal families before they could formulate a pure kshatriya
origin, particulalry in the early medieval period. In the early medieval period- 71
Early State Formation brahmaksatriya was a special category of brahmanas who had taken up the duties of
the Ksatriya varna without being relegated to a lower status. The Brahma Kshatriya
category was an important social category that was constructed for the sake of certain
brahmana families which acquired temporal power, but continued to subscribe to their
earlier brahmana identity. This category has also been turned down as pure fabrication
by some historians.
It is also possible that the social category of brahma-kshatriya might have had its origin
among the non-brahmanical descent groups and clans of the Deccan quite independent
of the societal processes visible in the epic-Puranic tradition. It would be difficult to
envisage a strict separation of the political and religious spheres of activity in such
societies. Perhaps in the case of the Brahatphalayanas and the Ananda gotrins (of the
Andhra region), brahma- kshatriya represnts the brahmanical version of the vestiges of
a non- brahmanical institution i.e., ‘the priest-chief’. Therefore the social category of
the brahma- kshatriya might have had multiple origins in the post- Satavahana Deccan.
That they were more numerous in the Deccan and southern India is admitted by all
historians, Karnataka in particular where the early Kadambas began their political
career. In the Andhra region the Visnukundis claimed the status of the Brahma kshatriya.
Vikramendravarman is described by the Tummalagudem Plates (CE 557) as endowed
with the brilliance of Brahma Kshatriya. It is noteworthy that none of the ruling families
of this period claimed connections with Chandravamsa (Lunar) or Suryavamsa (Solar)
lineages.
The totemic name of the clan or the name of some fictitious ancestor might have been
brahmanised to resemble a gotra term. The Brahatphalayanas ruled over present day
Gudivada taluk and adjoining parts of Krishna and Guntur districts in the 3rd – 4th
century CE and the name Brahatphalayana might have been a lineage or family name
which acquired the status of a gotra as it was a popular practice among contemporary
lineages to mention their gotras in their inscriptions. The Kandara Kula, who came to
be called Ananda gotrins, had possible non- brahmanical origins and the transformation
of their social identity as rulers might have been provided by the Vedic – Puranic
brahmanas, some of whom might have been the donees of the brahmadeya charters.
The Anandagotrins performed the Hiranyagarbha mahadana, which is believed to be a
device used by post-Satavahana ruling lineages for acquiring a new noble birth or even
as caste for the first time as suggested by I.K. Sarma. This ritual may be treated as a
ceremony for rejuvenating the persona of the ruler as suggested by D.D. Kosambi and
not for changing the caste or varna.
The social origins of the dominant ruling lineages also point to the influence of the
Bhargavangirasa Brahmanas (elite groups) on the formation of post- Satavahana polities
in the Deccan and Andhra regions. It appears that the Puranic references provided the
ideological foundation for the ascendancy of at least some of the Bhargavangirasa
brahmana families to temporal power in the Deccan in the mid- first millennium AD.
Major dynasties like the Vakatakas of both Nandivardhana and Vatsagulma branches
are said to belong to the Visnuvriddha gotra. The Vatsagulma branch also had the
matronymic Haritiputra. The Ajanta cave inscription of Harisena claims Brahmana origins
for the Vakatakas and the founder Vindhyasakti is called a dvija. The Vakatakas, who,
according to K.M. Shrimali had a ‘tribal’ origin, also seem to be Bhargavangirasa
brahmanas of the Visnuvriddha gotra. The early Kadambas claimed to belong to the
Angirasa gotra. The Kadamba Kula is also described as a dvija kula with the rulers
72
assuming matronymics like Haritiputra and the gotra , Manavya and are said to have Polities from 3rd
Century CE To 6th
followed the path of the three Vedas. The Western Gangas are said to be of the Century CE
Jahnaveya kula and the Kanvayana gotra. The Early Pallavas were of the Bharadvaja
gotra and trace their descent through Angirasa, Drona and Asvatthama.
All four ( gotras of the Vakatakas, Kadambas, Western Gangas and Pallavas) belong
to the Bhargavangirasa group of Brahmana gotra in the Srauta Sutras but are recognised
as Kshatropta dvija families of Bhargava and Angirasa in the Puranas. In the
Mahabharata, which was earlier than the Puranas, the motive of interpolations was
the construction of the image of the brahmana warrior hero. Asvatthama, one such
brahmana warrior was cursed to wander (as a terrifying brahmana warrior) alone on
the face of the earth in uninhabited countries. His wanderings could have been the
basis of the claims by some local ruling families as a possible dynastic ancestor, e.g. the
Pallavas. Such claims were often made in a specific context.
The Brahmana claims made by the Kadambas in their early records are indicative of
the fact that they were Kshatriyised brahmanas. (Manavya gotra) and were respected
as both Brahmanas and Kshatriyas. The Kadambas also claimed to be Angirasa
brahmanas, guided on the one hand by the warrior brahmana image of Rama
Jamadagnya, while assimilating, on the other hand, the locally popular cult of Karttikeya
and the Matr-ganas, as also some epithets and family name of their predecessors
perhaps for greater acceptance. Thus the stock references to Mahasena- Karttikeya
and the Matr-ganas as tutelary deities is significant, considering the beliefs of scholars
that they were Vedic brahmanas. The Vishnukundis of the Andhra region, who came
half a century later than the Kadambas also claimed brahma kshatriya identity, may
also have had a probable brahmana origin.
The Salankayanas of the same gotra claimed to be worshippers of Chitraratha svamin
or the Sun god and may have had links with the Maga brahmanas of Sakadvipa (Sind?).
Chaturvaidyasalas or Ghatikas of a later period, which were centres of Brahmanical
learning were established by them.
In the mid- first millennium CE there was a proliferation of brahmanical ruling lineages
and the adoption of gotras must have been occasioned by a necessity to validate
repeated transgressions of the Smriti injunctions or the Dharmasastric theoretical
axiomisation or model of what a varna based society should be like. Hence the
construction of the Puranic category of the Kshatropeta dvijas and the Itihasa – Puranic
tradition rationalising these very transgressions within the theoretical model of the Smriti
tradition.
The epic motif of the brahmana warrior hero personified by Rama Jamadagnya primarily
has greater implications for the societal processes that occurred during the post-
Satavahana period. There was thus a preponderance of the Bhargavangiras brahmanas,
who were rulers as well as beneficiaries or donees.

5.9 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF PENINSULAR

INDIA
Based on the mid-first millennium CE inscriptional evidence, there is an overall consensus
that the period was marked by the emergence and prevalence of polities with a
predominantly agrarian base in a manner hitherto unprecedented on both sides of the
Vindhyas. 73
Early State Formation 5.9.1 The Andhra Region
The Ikshvakus

Taking up the various ruling families in the Andhra region, as far as possible in a
chronological order, the earliest were the Ikshvakus of Vijayapuri (Nagarjunakonda).
The Ikshvakus who succeeded the Satavahanas in the Andhra region— the Krishna
valley (Krishna and Guntur districts) are known from archaeological, inscriptional and
numismatic evidence as representing the transition towards a Brahmanical socio- political
order.
Nagarjunakonda is situated on the left bank of the River Krishna in the present Palnad
Taluk in Guntur disrict. The only spatial aggregate clearly identifiable as a territorial
entity in the Ikshvaku inscriptions is Kammaka rashtra (later Kamma rashtra in Pallava
inscriptions), which included large parts of Prakasam district and southern parts of
Guntur district. Other inscriptions attest to Ikshvaku control over parts of Guntur district
(Jaggayyapeta, Kudurapura, Gurzala , Uppugundur referring to Dhannakataka or
Amaravati) and also parts of Krishna district ( inscription from Halura). Thus the
Ikshvakus controlled large parts of the coastal districts of modern Andhra Pradesh
including Krishna, Guntur and Prakasam districts. Their influence extended even to
Kurnool and Cuddapah districts.

They also exercised control over specific communities like the Pukiyas (Mahatalavaras)
with whom they had matrimonial relations, and the Hiramnakas. The Pukiyas probably
occupied the area on either bank of River Gundlakamma between Srisailam in the
west and Bay of Bengal on the east. The Hiramnakas were residents of Hiranya rashtra
represented by parts of modern Kurnool and Cuddapah districts and are known from
a few coins.

The Ikshvaku rule over Nagarjunakonda (Vijayapuri) was interrupted by brief spells
of control by other chiefs like the Mahatalavara, Mahagramaka, Mahadandanayaka
Sivasen (b) a of the Kausika gotra and the Peribideha family. On the north west frontier
of the Ikshvaku domain, in central Deccan (parts of Medak, Karimnagar and Warangal
districts) coins of a Sebaka assignable to the 2nd –3rd centuries CE were found suggesting
the presence of chiefly families in various parts of Andhra around the core of the Krishna
valley.

Archaeological evidence from Nagarjunakonda, both Buddhist and Brahmanical

monuments (Astabhujasvamin and Puspabhadrasvamin temples), apart from Roman
coins (of Hadrian), excavations at Yelesvaram on the banks of Krishna opposite
Nagarjunakonda, Vaddamannu and Kesanapalli in Guntur district, Ghantasala in Krishna
district, Veerapuram in Kurnool district, Nelakodapalli in Khammam district (where
only their influence reached), coins in Anantapur district, the Tenali hoard (Guntur
district) in Duvvuru in Nellore district point to the extent of their control as most of the
discoveries are well within the territory of the Ikshvakus known from their inscriptions.
The Ikshvakus were followers of the Brahmanical tradition , while at the same time the
women of the royal household came from chiefly families patronising the Buddhist
religion. The Ikshvakus themselves promoted Buddhist centres on account of the
continuous trading and commercial activities in Andhra region till about the 4th-5th
centuries CE.
74
 Polities from 3rd
The Brahatphalayanas Century CE To 6th
Century CE
The Brahatphalayanas are known from a lone Copper Plate record of Raja Jayavarama,
which is a brahmadeya grant of Pamtura gama in Kudurahara. Kudurahara is represented
by parts of the present Gudivada taluk in the Krishna district indicating that the
Brahatphalayanas controlled the area in and around Gudivada taluk.
The Salankayanas
The Salankayanas ruled over parts of West Godavari and Krishna districts. The units
referred to in their inscriptions are: 1) the Kanira ahara, a unit larger then a village,
wherein was situated the grant village of Mulakalapalle (either in Nidadavolu taluk of
west Godavari district or Mulagalampalle in Polavaram taluk of the same district),
which covered the area stretching from Polavaram upto Tanuku taluk in west Godavari
district; 2) Vacada Visya, perhaps part of West Godavari district not far from Guntupalli.
Vengipura identified with Peddavegi in West Godavari district was their centre of
power. There were several agraharas in the same district created by the Salankayanas;
3) Another unit called the Kudrahara Visaya contained the villages of Chinnapura
(Chintapura) pallika and Kompare ( Kommaru in Mandavalli taluk of the Krishna
district) and Kuruvada grama (= Kuruvada or Kunda in Gudivada taluk of the same
district) and Videnura pallika in the same unit. Thus large parts of Krishna district
also came under the Salankayanas; 4) Natapati or Nadattapati (also Nata Visaya?),
yet another unit included parts of Krishna and Guntur districts in the lower Krishna
valley.
Excavations at other individual sites like Elura (Eluru in West Godavari ?) and Ghantasala
in Krishna district show evidence of maritime trade or contacts during the 5th-6th centuries
CE. The Buddhist caityas and Viharas in Guntupalli dating from the 2nd century BCE to
the period of the Salankayanas show that parts of these two districts, West Godavari
and Krishna districts were under their control.
Ananda Gotrins
The territory under the Anandagotrins seems to have covered southern parts of Guntur
and adjoining Prakasam districts as indicated by their Copper Plate charters referring
to villages like Chezarla in Guntur district.
The Pallavas
The early Pallava charters record grants of land in the eastern districts of Andhra
Pradesh, while later inscriptions point to a southward movement from Guntur through
Prakasam, Nellore districts and beyond, which was also a major artery of trade and
communication.
Andhapata is a term which occurs for the first time in one of the early Pallava grants
referring to such a route of communication. It relates to the grant of Viripara=
Vipparalapalle on the bank of the tributary of River Vogeru in Narasaraopet taluk in
Guntur district. Apata may be taken as a route and Andhapata may be one such route
connecting Amaravati with its hinterland. The officers to whom these grants were
addressed were the Vyapata and the Ayukyaka.
The various units mentioned in the Pallava records are:
Satahanirattha, perhaps the same as Satahanihara, Karmma or Karmmaka rashtra.
75
Early State Formation (present day taluks of Addanki and Darsi in Prakasam district). A unit called Kavacakara
bhoga is located within Karmma rastra.
Munda rastra, in which the grant village called Uruvapalli grama was located seems to
have covered large parts of present day Nellore taluk around the Penneru river flowing
through Cuddapah and Nellore districts, which is the same as Suprayoga flowing through
Hiranya rastra. Munda rastra is represented by Kovur, Nellore, Ravur, Butchireddipalem
and Venkatagiri taluks of the Nellore district.
Sendraka rajya= present day districts of Hassan and Chikmagalur in Karnataka.(also
mentioned in Kadamba and Ganga inscriptions).
Nadattapati (Vesanta grant), a portion of the larger Nata Visaya included Talluru and
Guntur taluks.
Adeyaru rastra in which Udayendiram and Kanchivayil were located is represented by
Gudiyattam taluk of North Arcot district of Tamil Nadu.
Grants of land outside the Nellore- Prakasam and Guntur area included the Vengo
rastra which may be the area around Vengadam or Tirupati, the well known Vaisnava
pilgrimage centre.
Hiranya rastra= present day Cuddapah and Kurnool districts covering the banks of
River Kanderu.
Unattached place names are known from other inscriptions such as Manchikallu in
Palnad taluk in Guntur district, while Kanchi, which was the place of issue of early
Pallava charters is the present Kanchipuram in north Tamil Nadu.
None of the rulers belonging to the collateral line of the Pallava dynasty claimed
connection with Kanchipuram, but the rulers of the main line did issue charters from
places other then Kanchipuram like those located on the banks of the river Nudgali
and Tambrapasthana in Andhra Pradesh. The Early Pallavas were on the move frequently.
It would appear that the early Pallavas were a pastoral clan with ruling chiefs constantly
seeking a territorial base. The shortlived regional bases occupied by them were
subjected to inroads by the Visnukundis and the Telugu Codas into their early regions
and caused shifts in their base . Simultaneously the involvement of the Pallavas in the
internecine struggles of the early Kadambas and Western Gangas also led to a major
shift in their territorial base. The Pallavas of the main line seem to have acquired a
stable base in the Tondai region with Kanchipuram as the capital during the last
decades of the 6th century CE perhaps at the expense of the collateral line. The territory
lost to the Visnukundias and Telugu Codas were re- annexed by the time of
Mahendravarman I in early 7th century CE.
The Visnukundis— Of the six dynasties of the Andhra region, the Visnukundis were
the only outsiders to the Krishna- Guntur- Prakasam area. Known as Sriparvatiyas
they seem to have begun their political career from the Srisailam hills in the Kurnool
district. The Srisailam area along with Mahbubnagar- Nalgonda was known to the
early Puranas as the Rsika country.
The units known from their inscriptions are: 1) Velpuru Desa in which the Skandhavara
(military camp?) of Velpuru was located comprised of the Ipur taluk and parts of the
adjoining taluks of the Guntur district. 2) Guddadi/ Kuddavadi visaya or Kudavada,
76
identified with Gudivada in the Peddapuram taluk and Vilembadi identified with Polities from 3rd
Century CE To 6th
Velampalem in the Ramachandrapuram taluk (River Tulyabhaga) of the East Godavari Century CE
district. Their inscriptions are also found in places in the Krishna and Prakasam districts.
3) Plakki rastra mentioned in the Ramatirtham plates comprised of the present day
districts of Srikakulam, Vizianagaram and Visakhapatnam district up to Anakapalli
taluk. 4) Natapati known from the Chikkulla plates comprising of Jaggayyapeta,
Nandigama taluks and the adjoining parts of the Krishna district. 5) Vaiyerakara
represented by the northern parts of East Godvari district and Tundi (Tuni) in Tuni
taluk in southern Visakhapatnam district and Akiveedu in a taluk of the same name in
West Godavari district. Places on the banks of the Krishna occur in many of the records.
The Visnukundis started their political career from the Mahbubnagar- Nalgonda-
Srisailam area and later they appear to have established control over West Godavari
district, which was the stronghold of the Salankayanas earlier. They seem to have
gained parts of northern Guntur and Krishna district at the expense of the Anandagotrins
and the early Pallavas and a firm base also in East Godavari district and moved
northwards to Visakhapatnam and Srikakulam districts. They pushed the Pallavas to
Tondai region and occupied Kamma rastra in the Prakasam district.
Typical copper coins of the Visnukundis with a squatting lion symbol are known
suggesting the possible continuity of trade activities on the eastern coastal regions,
though less intensive than in the early historical period. The discovery of 787 coins
from Tangutur in Nalgonda district and other finds in the Deccan and further south,
apart from the Roman coins of the later Byzantine period, indicate that the extent and
geographical spread of trade contacts in this period, which scholars like R.S. Sharma
have characterised as one of ‘urban decline’, was considerable and hence the theory
of ‘urban decline’ needs to be re- assessed in the context of regional variations in the
intensity of trade activities and contact with the outside world.
The Puranic religion was patronised by the Visnukundis and brick temples were erected
for the Puranic deities like Vinayaka, Harihara and Sakti. Vengi or Pedda Vegi might
be considered as one of the main centres of activity after the decline of the Salankayanas.
Brahmanical cave shrines at Vijayavada, Undavalli and Mogalrajapuram have also
been attributed to the Visnukundis.
It appears that there was a hierarchy of preferred areas among the six dynasties. The
nucleus of this area was the Krishna river on either bank now represented by the
modern districts of Guntur and Krishna in which the regions of Andhapata, Natapati
and Kudurahara were located. The second area of attraction was the lower Godavari
valley and the Rayalasima area. The main contenders for this region were the
Salankayanas and Visnukundis. The Iksvakus and Pallavas also sought to extend their
influence over the Rayalasima area. The last area , i.e., the northern coastal districts of
Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram and Srikakulam attracted only the Visnukundis. The
southern coastal districts of Prakasam and Nellore were coveted mainly by the Pallavas.
The location of some of the donated villages on the banks of the smaller rivers like the
Penneru and the Tulyabhaga may be a result of either conscious agrarian expansion
from the nuclear areas or alternatively, the earlier proto-historic sites with other kinds
of resources were now sought by the new ruling families.
The concentration of the territorial bases of the dynasties on the Andhra coastal plains
is primarily due to the fertility of the region. Metal may well have been another resource 77
Early State Formation for which new settlements emerged in the Mahbubnagar – Nalgonda area of the Plateau
and the discovery of Visnukundi coins at a few places might be indicative of their
attempts to procure iron from the Telengana region. Cotton also may have been imported
from the Telengana region. The Hiranya rastra and Vengo rastra of the early Pallavas
are also located in an iron bearing zone in the Rayalasima region. Brahmadeyas begin
to appear in this region too. Copper was yet another metal from the Plateau region.
Trade in metal and/or implements seems to have been an important economic activity.

5.9.2 Karnataka
Ananda Satakarnis of Banavasi
Vaijayanti or Banavasi in the Sirsi taluk of Uttara Kannada district has been associated
with the Kadambas at least from the 4th century CE as indicated by the Talagunda
(Sthanakundura in the Shikarpur taluk of Shimoga district) inscription of the Kadamba
Santivarman. However, even before the Kadambas, evidence of an earlier ruling family,
which may be called the Ananda Satakarnis, i.e. local chiefs ruling over the region
around Vaijayanti known as Vanavasa in the late second- third century CE, i.e., is
available. They assumed the title ‘rajan’. A few coins of Raja Cutukulananda and Raja
Mudananda found in unstratified contexts in Banavasi and epigraphic evidence suggest
that the Ananda Satakarni rulers controlled the Vanavasa country comprising Uttara
Kannada district and adjoining parts of Shimoga and Belgaum districts, Dharwad and
Chitadurga districts in Karnataka.
This was a period when Sanskrit was being introduced in the Deccan as the main
language of the royal charters and inscriptions thus replacing Prakrit, which was still
being used in the Early Pallava records. The Cutukula (Ananda) Satakarnis ruling
Vaijayanti before the Kadambas, known from a Banavasi inscription, seem to be
different from the Ananda gotrins of the Andhra region. Cutukulanand may also have
been Bhartyas or subordinates (servants) like the Maharathis under the Satavahanas
and the Mahatalavaras under the Iksvakus.
The Early Kadambas of Banavasi are known from the Talagunda panegyric and the
founder of this dynasty, Mayuravarman, defeated the frontier guards of the Pallavas
and occupied the tough and forested terrain extending up to the Ghats and Sriparvata.
He is believed to have had control over central Karnataka and much beyond up to the
region of Tungabhadra , i.e., the Malaprabha river in the north flowing through Belgaum
and Bijapur districts. He seems to have levied taxes on the Brhatbanas and controlled
other rulers such as the Gangas, Punnatas, Kongalas, Pandyas and Alupas. The
Punnatas are located in the region of Mysore and adjoining parts watered by the
Kaveri and Kabini and probably allied with the Western Gangas. The Kongalas are
found originally in Kodagu area and owed allegiance to Kadamba Ravivarman. The
Kadamba territory thus extended up to Dakshina Kannada and Kodagu.
The other units or cognitive regions known from the Kadamba records are:
1) Antarmalaya rajya, which comprised of the Uttara Kannada Ghats and swampy
lands along the Kanara coast where the rivers descend the Ghats. 2) Mogalur Visaya,
i.e., the Bagewada taluk in the Bijapur district. 3) Asanda Visaya, represented by
parts of Chikmagalur district and the adjoining Chitaldurga district. 4) Suddikundura
Visaya- present Dharwad taluk and district. 5) Mahisa Visaya, also mentioned in some
78
Western Ganga charters, represented by the Madhugieri taluk in Tumkur district. Polities from 3rd
Century CE To 6th
6) Sendraka Visaya (also Sindaka Visaya) — parts of Chikamagalur, Hassan and Century CE
Mysore districts. 7) Vallavi Visaya— within Sendraka Visaya— parts of Hassan and
Mysore districts. 8) Pankti pura Visaya— parts of Dhrawad and Shimoga districts.
9) Karvannaga Visaya— parts of Siris and Siddapur taluks in Uttara Kannada district.
10) Tahare Visaya— modern Belur taluk of Hassan district, which also formed a part
of Sendraka Visaya. The Early Kadambas emerged in the Hanagal taluk of Dharwad
district and do not seem to have had control over any part of Mysore.
There were two branches of the Kadambas and neither had any clearly defined domain.
The rulers of the collateral branch had issued charters recording land grants within the
territory controlled by the main branch and also controlled their capital Vaijayanti after
the death of Harivarman the last ruler.
Gudnapura— 5 km away form Banavasi seems to have been the royal residence at
least under Ravivarman of the main line. Banavasi and Hanagal contain the remains of
some early temples. That there was important trading activity is known from the
Byzantine coins in gold which have been found in the Kadamba region.
The core areas of Kadambas were the modern districts of Shimoga, Uttra Kannada,
Belgaum and Dharwad and parts of Dakshina Kannada district. They extended up to
Raichur, Bellary and parts of Chitaldurga districts. The Kadambas had to contend with
the Early Pallavas and Western Gangas for control over Hassan and Chikmagalur
districts.
Early Western Gangas
A fairly clear idea of the territorial limits of the Western Gangas can be obtained from
their inscriptions. Yet many places remain unidentified. The units known from their
inscriptions are: 1) Paruvi Visaya, ( Paruvi= Parigi in Gauribidanur taluk of Kolar district)
comprising of present day Hindupur taluk in Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh and
the adjoining taluk of Gauribidanur in Kolar district. 2) Kulungijya rajya around modern
Kunigal, a taluk headquarter in Tumkur district. 3) Morasa nadu— modern Mandya
district. 4) Perura Visaya — around Herur in Sira taluk of Tumkur district and Hiriyur
taluk of Chitaldurga district. 5) Kaivara visaya— modern Sidlaghatta and Chintamani
taluks of Kolar district. 6) Maragare/ Maruk(g)are Visaya — Madhugiri taluk of Tumkur
district the confluence of a small stream with Jayamangali, a tributary of the Penneru.
which comprised of Tumkur, Madhugiri, Gubbi and adjoining parts of Kunigal taluk of
Tumkur district. 7) Kuvalala/ Kolvalal visaya/rastra — area around modern Kolar
taluk in the same district. 8) Mudukottura visaya—modern Bangarpet taluk and
adjoining parts of Kolar and Mulbagal taluks in Kolar district. 9) Vallavi visaya in
Sendraka rajya, also called asta sahasra visaya, the earliest division with a numerical
suffix. (Sendraka visaya seems to have been larger than other divisions like Vallavi and
Devalage visayas). 10) Korikunda bhoga/ visaya—Malur taluk in Kolar district and
probably adjoining parts of Hoskote taluk in Bangalore district. 11) Pudoli visya/ Pudal
nadu rastra—Hodali visyay in Ganga epigraphs- Srinivaspur taluk and adjoining parts
of Kolar district. 12) Ganje nadu — perhaps in Kolar itself. 13) Vanne visaya—located
near Tumkur? 14) Punnata and Pannada—the area watered by the Kaveri and Kabini
i.e., modern Mysore district and adjoining parts of southern Karnataka. Punnata was
rich in mineral resources and forest wealth – timber, beryl, elephants and ivory— and
it might have been a bone of contention among the brothers of Durvinita in late 6th
79
Early State Formation century CE 15) The Perura adhishthana, where a garden land for 500 karsapanas
was donated to the temple of Arhat in Perur is represented by modern Herur.
As most of the early charters of the Western Gangas refer to place names in Kolar,
Anantapur, Tumkur and Mandya districts, it seems to be their original homeland. The
core area of the early Western Gangas was represented by the present day districts of
Kolar, Tumkur, Mandya and parts of Bangalore in Karnataka and Anantapur district in
Andhra Pradesh. Due to competition from early Pallavas and early Kadambas over
Hassan and Chikmagalur districts towards the end of the fourth and beginning of the
sixth centuries CE, they appear to have moved into the area around modern Mysore
district in Karnataka and controlled parts of Dharmapuri district in Tamil Nadu.
The respective domains of the Ananda Satakarnis, Kadmabas and Western Gangas
are situated in the ‘meso-region’ known as the Karnataka plateau, which is a part of
the peninsular uplands macro- region.
It is not surprising that Banavasi or the erstwhile Vaijayanti had developed into an
urban and religious centre on account of its proximity to the intersecting Ghat routes in
Sirsi taluk.
Vanavasa, the core area of activity under the Ananda Satakarnis and early Kadambas
belonged to the Malnad region which is a hilly and heavily forested country. But an
attempt to control the adjoining maidan region is clearly visible with the discovery of
the coins of the former and in some land grants of the latter in the region. The dynasties
of Karnataka did not have the resources of a fertile deltaic region for their expansion
(as in Andhra Pradesh). None of the records mention the ‘bhumicchidra nyaya’ as the
guiding principle of the lands granted. All grants to Brahmanas, Jains and Buddhists
were made in villages already settled and well populated.
The Kadamba and Ganga inscriptions allude to some sort of a mercantile organisation
variously termed as Tuviyal or Tuthiyalla in this area which was controlled by Brahmanas.
That there was inter-regional trade is attested to by the reference to the Manigrama
sreni in Hassan plates in Peruru adhishthana (Melkote plates of Ganga Madhavavarman
III).

5.9.3 Maharashtra and North Karnataka

The Vakatakas
The Vakatakas were a major ruling family of the period from the fourth to the sixth
centuries CE, who were directly influenced by the changing political configuration in
north India under the Guptas. They not only had close political ties and matrimonial
relations with the Guptas but also for the first time introduced Gupta political structures
in peninsular India.
Their original home lay in the Vindhyan region of Madhya Pradesh. Moving down to
the eastern districts of Maharashtra, probably in the wake of Gupta expansion, they
acquired the Puranic description, Vindhyakas. The main centre of the Vakatakas i.e.,
Pravarapura, modern Paunar, is situated about 10 km from Wardha. Vatsagulma or
Basim, which was the centre of a branch of the Vakatakas, is the headquarters of a
Tahsil in Akola district in Maharashtra.
The regions which are known from their inscriptions include : Supratistha ahara was
80 situated in Warora, Yavatmal and Hinganaghat tahsils of Chanda, Yavatmal and Wardha
districts respectively. Asi bhukti included Morsi and the adjoining parts of Achalpur Polities from 3rd
Century CE To 6th
tahsils in Aamaravati district. Pakanna rastra is represented by parts of Wardha and Century CE
Amaravati districts i.e., the banks of river Wardha.
Aparapatta of Vennatata or Bennakata represents parts of Gondia tahsil in Bhandara
district, Umred taluk of Nagpur district and some portions of Balaghat district in Madhya
Pradesh.
Bhojakata rajya , in which a grant village Charmmanka (Chammk) was located, covered
parts of Amaravati and Chandor tahsils of Amaravati district. Chammak in Achalpur
tahsil of Amaravati district is itself situated on the bank of river Madhu, another name
for the Chandrabhaga.
Bennakarppara bhoga on the river Benna is represented by the area around Amgaon
on the eastern bank of the Wainganga.
Arammi rajya may be Amla in Wardha district and included parts of Nagpur district.
Varuccha rajya covered parts of Chhindwara district in Madhya Pradesh.
Krsnalesalikataka was probably in the present Amaravati district. Uttarapatta was
located on the north and north east of river Wainganaga in Bhandara district.
Nagarakataka was the region around Mangrul in Akola district. Anarttapura bhukti
covered large parts of Dhule district. The extent of most of these regions or units
mentioned in the Vakataka inscriptions is difficult to determine.
Several margas are mentioned in the Vakataka inscriptions suggesting that the regions
around important routes to the Deccan came within the authority of the Vakatakas.
Padmapura— purva marga seems to have included Wardha and Nagpur [Link]
Padmapura apara marga marked the area around Masoda in Katol tahsil of Nagpur
district, which lay to the west of Padmapura purva marga. Varadakhetaka marga was
in Lohanagara bhoga, which covered the adjacent parts of Amaravati district and Betul
district in Madhya Pradesh. Yasapura marga may be located in Nagpur tahsil and
Sundhati of the Sundhati marga might be Samanapur near Balaghat in Madhya Pradesh.
Nandikada Uttara marga represented the adjacent parts of Akola, Parbhani and
Namded districts. The location of others like Gepuraka marga is difficult to ascertain.
Archaeological evidence from Paunar i.e., Pravarapura, apart from a few coins and
dilapidated temples (including Jain temples), archaeological evidence form Tharsa
(Nagpur district), Bhokardan (Aurangabad district) and Vakataka temples (Varaha,
Bhogarama and Kapotarama temples) at Ramtek (Nagpur district) known as
Ramagiristhana in copper plate inscriptions are significant as some of the earliest
indicators of the importance of the Puranic religion and the Brahmanical tradition that
the Vakatakas adopted and promoted in peninsular India. The Mahayana caves at
Ajanta excavated under the patronage of the Basim branch of the Vakatakas point to
the flourishing state of Mahayana Buddhism in the Deccan which continued to be
important till the 9th century CE.
Titles like Dharmamaharaja and Matronymics like Haritiputra (especially adopted by
the Basim branch) suggest that while they were influenced by the Gupta political
traditions, they carried some of the earlier symbols of the regional ruling families of
peninsular India . However it is important to note that they claimed to be Brahmanas of
Visnuvruddha gotra and worshipped Puranic deities like Siva and Visnu. 81
Early State Formation The entire expanse of the territories controlled by the Vakatakas at different points of
time throughout their political career is situated within the ‘macro- region’ known as
the Peninsular Uplands. Later the core area shifted to the ‘first order’ region known as
the Vidarbha plain, a part of the ‘meso-level’ Mahrashtra region, i.e., Wardha—
Penganga plain and Upper Godavari valley east. The territories of the two families
were spread over complex ecological zones unlike their contemporaries elsewhere in
the Deccan.
The escarpments of the Vindhyan sediments — became a traditional socio-cultural
boundary between north and south India. The Vakatakas began their political career in
a transitional zone i.e., the Tapti— Purna river system and Basim, the catchment area
of the Godavari.
The southward movement of the Vakatakas may not have been solely due to the pressure
exerted by the expansionist regime of their contemporaries— the Guptas. The shifting
of territorial base would have been prompted by the need to control an economically
viable ecological niche that could be exploited over a long period of time.
The theory of urban decline after the 3rd century CE in the whole subcontinent has
influenced the approach to the study of the Vakataka expansion and territorial base in
the Deccan, although scholars like K.M. Shrimali are not oblivious to the existence of
some form of trade and industry in their domain. Hence it has been argued that there
was a burgeoning of rural settlements in the territories controlled by both the branches
of the Vakataka lineage and that a large number of immigrant brahmanas (e.g. the
beneficiaries mentioned in the Chammak copper plates) settled in these regions. However,
no reference to the original home of the donees is made in the records. There is also no
direct evidence of Brahmanas from the northern plains being brought into these areas
as is often claimed in the early medieval inscriptions (6th – 12th centuries CE). Yet
Brahmanas seem to have moved within the region and received plots of land in already
settled villages. In most settled areas only a few new plots and villages were donated.
Most villages (e.g., the Thalner plates of Harisena) are traceable in the Tapti- Purna
valley in Dhule district, Maharashtra. There is no reference in the Vakataka charters to
the setting up of new villages by residents of abandoned towns and cities. None of the
donated villages were demarcated on the basis of ‘bhumicchidra nyaya’ or ‘avaniradhra
nyaya’ as was the custom for denoting new settlements in later periods.
The westward expansion of the Vakatakas visible in the grants of Pravarasena II and
his successors is indicative of the attempts to integrate already existing settlements
through the institution of brahmadeya , but not the creation of new ones in all cases.
The territory of the Vakatakas in general and Vidarbha in particular, was not untouched
by the influences of Sanskritic culture in the pre- Vakataka period, especially from the
mid- first millennium BC and more particularly from the Mauryan period. The occurrence
of the Northern Black Polished Ware and Punch Marked Coins in excavations, the
reference to Vidarbha in the Aitareya Brahmana show evidence of Vedic, Buddhist
and Puranic religious presence.

5.9.4 The Tamil Region

Contrary to the Deccan and Andhra regions, the Tamil region has no evidence of clear
socio-political configurations from the 3rd to the 6th centuries CE. After the decline of
82
the Sangam chiefdoms of the three major ruling families— the Cera, Cola and Pandya, Polities from 3rd
Century CE To 6th
probably due to the decline in maritime trade and constant flux in the cultural traditions, Century CE
as also the reference to a people called the Kalabhras in later inscriptions and traditions
as the intruding elements, subverting the early historical socio-political order, no polities
emerged or no monarchical organisation came to be established in the Tamil country till
the occupation of Tondai nadu (northern Tamil region) by the Pallavas moving from the
Andhra region with their Brahmanical leanings and Puranic religious traditions in the 6th
century CE and the simultaneous rise to power of the Pandyas, claiming descent from
the Sangam Pandyas but largely transformed by the influence of Brahmanical traditions
and new institutional forms like the Brahmadeya and the temple. Often called the
Kalabhra interregnum and also the dark age in conventional historiography, Tamil history
of the period from the 3rd to the 6th century CE shows no evidence of the crystallisation
of polities and social organisation of the early medieval type of polities under the Pallavas
of Kancipuram and the Pandyas of Madurai.

5.10 GENERAL REMARKS ON THE HISTORICAL

GEOGRAPHY OF PENINSULAR INDIA
The nuclear regions where early dynasties such as the Vakatakas emerged to power
are thus not mere geographical regions. They represent a historical category and
developed due to historical processes and hence they are not a given geographical or
ecological zone per se.
The geographical sense prevalent during the period is indicated by units larger than a
single settlement such as the margas, bhogas, visaya, rastras and rajyas. They varied in
size and some were inherited from the Satavahanas and others evolved due to the
creation of agrarian settlements or integration of existing ones. There is very little evidence
for an organised or centralised administrative apparatus imposed from above and no
clearly demarcated units. It would be futile to construct hierarchies of administrative
divisions on the basis of the analysis of suffixes like rastra, visaya, bhoga, desa, bhukti
etc. often used interchangeably. There were no bureaucratic centres in the post-
Satavahana polities that went about the task of organising land revenue and tax
administration in their respective spheres of influence. There is evidence of the gradual
integration of some areas into a regional unit with one of the settlements as the
centre.(e.g., Kudurahara under the Salankayana) No fixity was attained by some of
the divisions of this period.
Some of the spatial units found in the epigraphs and Puranic texts of this period may be
classified as ‘ naively given’, i.e., one which is recognised as a meaningful territorial
entity by its inhabitants or by other people to whom it is of some concern. Spatial
aggregates like Dakshinapatha, Andhra, Vanavasa etc. would qualify as ‘naively given’
regions during the mid- first millennium CE. Vanavasa— also a naively given region—
specific topographical feature rather than a people or a route of trade. Punnata—
‘naively given’ ( Ptolemy refers to it in the 2nd century CE). It attracted the Western
Gangas. Vidarbha also seems to be a ‘naively given’, although it was known much
earlier.
The Pallava records refer to Andhapatha i.e., a route of trade and communication in
Andhra connecting the lower Krishna valley urban centres to the Telengana region.
83
Early State Formation The land grant charters of this period bear testimony to the struggle among several
ruling lineages for control over this fertile region.
Titles like Kadambanam Dhrama Maharaja, Vakatakanam Maharaja and Pallavanam
Maharaja could well have been chiefs of lineages rather then a particular territory.
While the Western Ganga inscriptions refer to the janapada, which may indicate the
territory controlled by them, the Pallavas describe their domain as constituting a paura
janapada. All this would point to the lack of crystallisation of territory related identities
prior to the 7th – 8th centuries CE.

5.11 SUMMARY
The decline of Kushanas in north India was accompanied with the rise of Gupta power.
The Guptas had to contend with the power of a number of gana sangha polities and
chiefdoms. The forest chiefs were also subjugated by the Guptas. The emergence of
feudatories was a result of the policy of administrative decentralisation and practice of
sub infeudation of land rights. The Gupta empire disintegrated in the sixth century CE
and several ruling houses emerged which had been vassals of the Guptas. Gupta state
was based on the dominant Brahamanical- Puranic ideology and the concept of Varna
hierarchy. The socio-political organisation was legitimized by and based on the
Dharmashastric tradition. On the basis of Puranic and epigraphic evidence the social
origins and nature of polities in south India between 3rd to 6th century CE has been
discussed. Several polities with a predominantly agrarian base emerged in Peninsular
India in this period. The historical geography of these polities has been traced on the
basis of archaeological evidence. It has been suggested that there was no organised or
centralised administrative apparatus in these polities.

5.12 GLOSSARY
Agrahara : Grant of village
Ahara : District
Aiteraya Brahamana : Text on sacrificial rituals which are appendices to Vedas
Autochthonous : Indigenous
Avaniradhra Nyaya : A term used in the land grants (inscriptions) in
Maharashtra in the 6th century CE
Bhukti : Province
Bhumi Chhidra Nyaya : A term used in the inscriptions found in Gujarat and
Maharashtra between 5th to 7th century CE which was
based on the maxim of fallow land.
Dharmashastra : Hindu text of instruction on morals and law
Dvija : Twice born
Hunas : Central Asian Tribe also known as white Hunas.
Jati : Castes which emerged due to hypergamous or
84 hypogamous marriage among dvija castes
Karsapanas : A silver coin. Polities from 3rd
Century CE To 6th
Century CE
Kidara : The Kushana king who ruled over Kabul and upper
Sindh valley
Mahabharata : Epic literature
Nuclear Region : Core Region
Puranas : Sacred text which form part of Smriti literature
Sassanians : Dynasty of Persia.
Smritis : A class of literature comprising law books, Epics and
Puranas
Srauta Sutra : Text on sacrificial Ritual.
Sreni : Guild
Tehsil : A unit smaller than a District.

5.13 EXERCISES
1) Trace the rise of the Gupta power in north India in the 4th century CE How would
you characterise Gupta polity?
2) Discuss the nature and social origins of polities in south India between 3rd to 6th
century CE

85
Early State Formation
SUGGESTED READINGS FOR THIS BLOCK
[Link], Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India;
—————, Material Culture and Social Formations in Ancient India
—————, Origin of the State in India
Romila Thapar, From Lineage to State, Social Formations in the Mid First
Millennium BCE in the Ganga Valley;
—————, The Mauryas Revisited
Kumkum Roy, The Emergence of Monarchy in North India
B. Chattopadhyaya, Kushana State and Indian Society
[Link], India under the Kushanas
[Link], The Imperial Guptas and their Times
[Link] Sastri,(ed.), A Comprehensive History of India, [Link];
—————, A History of South India
[Link], Readings in South Indian History
[Link], Agrarian Structure in Central India and Northern Deccan
Romila Thapar, Early India from the Origins to CE. 1300.

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