Research Methodology Notes:

Unit 1:

What is Research / Define – Research is a Careful

Investigation or inquiry conducted specially through searching
for new facts in any branch of knowledge.

Main Objective of Research - main aim is to find out hidden

and undiscovered facts/truths.
The research objectives mostly fall into these four groupings.

- to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to explore and

achieve insights into it.
Eg. Exploratory Research studies

- To portray the characterestics and describe particular

individual, situation, or group.
Eg. Descriptive research studies

- To determine the frequency with which something occurs

or is associated with something else.
Eg. Diagnostic research studies.

- To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between

variables.
Eg. Hypothesis-testing research studies.
Types of Research -

- descriptive vs analytical - (conduct survey to describe

vs use available facts to analyse)
(only description / gives critical evaluation)
- descriptive includes surveys and fact-finding
enquires of different kinds.
- main purpose is to describe the state of affairs as it
exists at present.
- in business and social science its referred to as Ex
post facto research: has no control over variables only reports
state of affairs.

- Analytical , unlike descriptive uses all available facts

and analyze them to make a critical evaluation of the material.

- Applied vs Fundamental –
- fundamental is concerned with
generalizations and with formulation of a theory. Often termed
‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.
Eg. Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake , research
concerning pure mathematics, concerning human behaviour to
make generalizations.

- Applied aims at finding a solution for an

immediate problem that’s being faced by society or
organization.
Eg – marketing , evaluation research.

- Quantitative vs Qualitative
 - Quantitative is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. Applicable to any phenomena that can be expressed in
quantity

- Qualitative is concerned with the quality or kind of a

phenomena.

- Conceptual vs Empirical Research

- conceptual research is related to research based on
Abstract ideas or theories.
Generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new
concepts to reinterpret existing ones.

- Empirical research relies on experience and observation.

Completely data – oriented research that can come up with
conclusions that can be verified by observation or experiment.

The Research Process:

Three phases eight steps.
Phase 1 – Deciding what to research.
Step 1 – formulating a research problem
- first and foremost step of research, formulating helps
identify the researchers the destination of the research and
what he/she intends to research.

Phase 2 – Planning a research study

Step 2 – conceptualizing a research plan
- important feature of the research process its mainly
used to identify gaps in knowledge and verify what is already
known, identify past errors and limitations.
Selecting faulty design mislead findings and waste human /
financial resource

Step 3 – Constructing an instrument for data

collection.
- anything or any method used to collect information /
data for the study is called a research tool or research
instrument. Eg observation surveys, questionnares.
Constructing this research instrument is the first practical step

Step 4 – selecting sample

- the accuracy vastly depends upon how the sample
data is chosen. The basic objective of any sampling design is to
minimize the cost and reduce the gap between values obtained
from sample and those prevalent in population.

Step 5 – Writing Research Proposal

 - the plan tells the reader about the research problem
and how we intend to approach it. It gives the operational plan
for obtaining solutions.
A research proposal must convey
- what you are proposing to do
- how you plan to proceed
- why you selected proposed strategy
Phase 3 – Conducting research study
Step 6 – collecting data
- after creating the research instrument we collect the
data and draw inferences and conclusions for the study.
Many methods can be used to gather information according to
need. Eg interviews.
Step 7 – processing and displaying data.
- the way of analyzing collected information depends
on two things, the type of information (descriptive quantitative
etc) and the way we want to communicate findings to readers.
For quantitative we can analyze it manually or with
computer.
For descriptive reports can be written based on field notes,
analyze them manualaly or with computer.
Step 8 – writing a research report
Writing the report is the last and most difficult step of a
research.
The report informs everyone what we have done, what we have
found what conclusions we arrived at.

If we were clear throughout the process we can write a clear

report.
Report should be in academic style and be divided into
chapters and sections based upon the report. \

Considerations in selecting a research problem –

Interest
Magnitude
Relevance
Availability of data
Ethical issues

Steps in formulating a research problem

Choose a broad field or subject area of interest

Dissect broad area into subareas
Select interested subareas
Raise research questions
Formulate objectives
Assess objectives
Double check
CA -2 Notes:

What is sampling -
Why is Sampling necessary - sampling is necessary
because studying the overall population is very time consuming
and not cost efficient, so choosing an appropriate sample that
can represent the overall population would help us simulate the
study and get an equivalent result or inferences.

Two types of sampling – probability sampling and non

probability sampling.
1. Probability Sampling (Random selection, unbiased)
o Simple Random: Lottery style3.
 Simply choosing people at random without
any strategy. Every person has equal
chance. Also called method of chance.
o Systematic: Every nth person4.
 Choosing people by splitting them down
based on population. So like in 100 u
choose 1 from 10.
o Stratified: Dividing into groups (strata) to represent
subgroups accurately5.
  So if the population groups are not even if
theyre like 90% 10% we split the
population into different groups or
STRATAs and take sample from them in a
way that they are represented in the same
distribution, 900 and 100 if we want 50
wed take 50 50 from each and do 90% and
10% so wed get the same distribution. If
we do random we might just get nothing from
other subgroup.
o Cluster: Picking groups (like schools) rather than
individuals to save resources6.
2. Non-Probability Sampling (Subjective, faster)
o Convenience: Selecting whoever is easiest to
access7.
 Simply selecting whoever is available
easily.
o Consecutive sampling : same as convenience but
the researcher works on a sample or a group for a
longer period and then moves to a different sample
or group if deemed necessary.
o Quota sampling: researcher chooses samples that
fit the quota (age, profession) etc. on a convenience
basis. I need 10 engineers so ill ask first 10 engineers
I see.
o Judgemental sampling: the researcher uses their
own judgement and expertise to handpick a sample
they deem fit for their study, it may be biased but it
may also give out better results than random
samples.
o Snowball: Participants recruit other participants8.
 Its like u choose a sample first then ask
the sample itself who to choose.
Sampling error - Sampling Error is the statistical difference
between the estimate derived from a sample and the true value
of the entire population.
It occurs simply because you are observing a part (sample)
rather than the whole (population). It is an inherent part of the
sampling process and is not considered a mistake or a result of
human error.

Types of sampling error –

1. Population-Specific Error: The researcher doesn't
understand who they should be surveying (e.g., surveying
kids for a study on voting behavior).
2. Selection Error: This happens when participation is self-
selected. Only people who are interested respond, which
leaves out everyone else (e.g., a voluntary online poll).
3. Sample Frame Error: The researcher selects from the
wrong list (e.g., using a telephone directory that doesn't
list people with unlisted numbers).
4. Non-Response Error: You pick the right people, but they
refuse to answer or can't be contacted.
Ways to overcome: making the sample bigger, performing
multiple test replications, random sampling.
Measures of Central Tendency (Statistics)
 1. Mean: The mathematical average (Sum of all numbers /
Count of numbers).
2. Median: The exact middle number when data is sorted frm
low to high.
3. Mode: The number that appears most frequently.

Types of Data Presentation (2-Mark / 5-Mark Concepts)

The PDF gives examples, but for a theory exam, you should list
these specific categories:
 Tables: Used for precise numerical data. They allow
readers to compare specific values easily.
 Illustrations (Figures):
o Graphs/Charts: Show trends and relationships (e.g.,
Line graphs for trends over time, Bar charts for
comparisons).
o Diagrams/Schematics: Show how an apparatus or
process works (e.g., experimental setup).
o Maps/Photos: Visual evidence of the study area or
subject.
2. Guidelines for Visuals (Crucial for "Write Short Notes"
questions) The PDF lists very specific rules you should
memorize:
 Integration: Graphics shouldn't just "be there." They
must be explained fully in the text (e.g., "Figure 1
shows...").
 Order: Textual information should generally come before
the graphic. State the result in text first, then show it.
 Clarity: Use them to illustrate specific points, not just for
decoration.
 Citation: If the image isn't yours, you must cite the
source.

Report Format:
 - Abstract: abstract is a brief summary, It must state the
problem, the methodology, and the findings/conclusions.
Always comes first and written in past tense.

- Introduction: explains why the research matters.

Define the problem, explain the research’s importance and
state the objectives and goals of the study.
- Background: Include the theory for the experiments,
equations required for calculations, etc…
- Methodology: tells the reader how the research was
conducted so that they can replicate it. Describe the data
collection, apparatus, and experimental procedure.
- Results: Report your findings in TEXT first before
presenting it visually using tables or graphs/figures.
Text points out the most significant portions of research
findings like key trends or relationships.
visuals represent data.
-discussion: talk about why and how we got the results,
explain the results, comment on unexpected findings offering
hypotheses to them.
Compare your findings to previous findings.
- conclusion: give the final takeaway from your study.
Discuss about what we learned throughout the study, the
strengths and weaknesses, possible applications of your study.
- Recommendation: talk about what you would do
differently, if you would like to recommend any change.

Citations and references:

Citations- they are specific references to sources within the
body of the text, indicating where particular information, ideas
or findings have been drawn from.
-included author name publication year and page number.
- main function is to
1. Give proper credit to original author or source.
2. To let readers locate and verify the referenced information.
3. To support the writer’s claims or arguments with evidence.

Different citation and reference styles-

1. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
 Field: Engineering, Computer Science, and Electronics.
 Style: Uses numeric in-text citations (we.g., [1]) inside
square brackets.
 Reference List: Numbered list at the end, matching the
order of citation in the text.
2. APA (American Psychological Association)
 Field: Social Sciences, Psychology, Education.
 Style: Uses Author-Date format in the text (e.g., (Smith,
2020)).
 Reference List: Detailed list at the end, formatted with
specific rules for italics and punctuation.
3. ACM (Association for Computing Machinery)
Field: CS and IT papers
Style: numeric in text citations and numbered reference
list like IEEE.

3. MLA (Modern Language Association)

 Field: Humanities, Literature, Arts (Common in English
departments).
 Style: Focuses on Author-Page Number.
4. Other Common Styles (Good for listing in a 10-mark
answer)
  Chicago: Versatile, used in History and Business. Uses
footnotes/endnotes.
 Harvard: A generic "Author-Date" style used in many
fields.
 Vancouver: Numeric style used in Medicine and Life
Sciences.

Research Ethics:
Definition: Research ethics are principles that guide research
designs and practices. They exist to:
 Protect the rights of participants.
 Enhance research validity.
 Maintain scientific integrity.
2. Key Ethical Issues (The Big 6) For a long answer, you
must explain these six core issues found in your material:
 Voluntary Participation: Participants must be free to
choose to participate without pressure. They can withdraw
at any time without penalty.
 Informed Consent: Participants must receive all
necessary info (benefits, risks, funding) to decide if they
want to participate. For children, you need permission
from parents.
 Anonymity: The researcher generally does not know who
the participants are (e.g., no names collected).
 Confidentiality: The researcher knows who the
participants are but promises to keep their identity secret
in the report.
 Potential for Harm: You must consider and mitigate
risks. Harm can be:
o Physical (pain/injury).
o Psychological (shame/anxiety).
o Social (embarrassment).
 o Legal (reporting sensitive illegal data).
 Results Communication: You must avoid plagiarism and
be transparent; do not fabricate results.
3. The Institutional Review Board (IRB)
 What is it? A committee that reviews research proposals
to ensure they are ethically acceptable.
 Function: You submit your proposal before starting data
collection. They check if your materials and procedures
follow the code of conduct.
Research Proposal:
A research proposal is a detailed statement of intent. It acts as
a "blue print" of future activities and convinces others that you
have a worthwhile project and the competence to complete it.
Key components of research proposal:
 Title: Should be concise, descriptive, and catchy.
 Introduction: Provides the background and context. It
sets the stage for why the study is necessary.
 Statement of the Problem: Defines the specific issue
you are tackling.
 Rationale/Justification: Why is this worth doing? How
does it bridge knowledge gaps or help society?.
 Objectives: What do you hope to achieve? These should
be clear and measurable. Divided into General and
Specific objectives.
 Literature review : Proves you aren't "reinventing the
wheel". It shows you know the existing research and
identifying gaps.
 Methodology: The "Work Plan." Describes the design,
tools, data collection techniques, and analysis methods.
 Budget: Estimated costs for materials, personnel,
transport, etc..
 Time Schedule: A timeline of tasks.
  References/Bibliography: List of documents cited.
3. Common Mistakes to Avoid (Bonus points for
mentioning this!)
 Failure to cite landmark studies.
 Failure to stay focused on the research question.
 Too much detail on minor issues.

Types of property:

Why do we need IPR?

1. To provide incentives for new creations (money/reward).
 2. To give recognition to creators.
3. To ensure genuine products are available.

Patents:
  Inventions (Products, Processes, Materials,
Compositions)
  Technical Solution to a Technical problem
Industrial Designs:
  External features appealing to the eye
  New Shape, Pattern or Configuration
Trade Marks:
   A visual symbol such as a Word, Name, Logo, Label,
 Monogram, Slogan etc.
  Applied on Article of Manufacture or Service
  Indicates the origin of goods and services
Copyrights:
  Artistic, literary, musical and dramatic creations
  Proprietary right
  Comes into existence as soon as the work is created
Geographical Indications (GIs):
  Identifies agricultural, natural or manufactured goods
 originating from a definite territory in India
  Possessing special quality or reputation based upon
unique
 characteristics of the geographical location
WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization)
 What is it? A specialized agency of the United Nations
(UN).
 Goal: To promote and protect IP worldwide.
 Functions:
o Administers international treaties (like the PCT for
patents).
o Harmonizes national IP laws.
o Provides services for global registration.
2. WTO (World Trade Organization)
 What is it? An organization dealing with the global rules
of trade.
 Goal: To ensure trade flows smoothly and freely.
 Relation to IPR: It administers the TRIPS Agreement
(Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights).
 TRIPS: This is the most important agreement because it
forces all WTO member countries to have minimum
standards for IP protection (e.g., ensuring patents last 20
years).
UNIT – 5 Patents

Patent – a patent is an exclusive right granted by government

to an inventor in exchange for a detailed public disclosure of
the invention.
- the disclosure called the ‘detailed specifications’ enables
others to make use of the invention after the patent expires.
- purpose of patent is to stimulate innovation by protecting
inventors form unauthorized usage of their inventions.

Objectives of a patent
- promote innovation
- protect investment
- prevent unfair competition
- stimulate economic growth ultimately

Benefits of a patent
- exclusive right to produce , use , sell and Import to the
patent holder(inventor)
- financial gain : patents can be licensed to companies to
generate royalties, or used as bank collaterals
- competitive advantage : patents give companies
advantage on other companies by preventing copying
inventions.
- credibility: patents give more credibility to a company
attracting investors
 - global protection: international patents can protect
inventions/products globallly.

FEATURES OF A PATENT:
-Novelty: invention must be new and not be publicly
disclosed before patent was filled.
-Non obviousness: invention must be a new step that isn’t
obvious to a person with ordinary skill i.e., a simple obvious
change to existing invention cannot be patented.
- industrial applicability: the invention must be useful and
be capable of being made in an industry
- exclusive rights: patent grants the holder exclusive rights
to produce , sell , use , or import invention
- limited duration: patents are only valid usually upto 20
years from filling.
- geographic limitation: if a patent is issued in a specific
country its only valid in that country. Though international
agreements can be made specially.
-ability to license or transfer: patent can be licensed sold
or transferred in exchange for royalties or a price.
- disclosure requirement: in exchange for protection patent
holder must give out a detailed public description of the
invention so that others can learn and build upon it.

Specification :
- specification is the core techno-legal documentation
detailing an invention. This is crucial for getting patent. It’s the
public disclosure documentation of the invention. Can be
provisional or complete.
Types of specification-
-provisional : filled when invention is conceptual or under
development to claim an early filling date
 Title description drawings(optional)
Claims are optional. (claims are parts of invention the
inventor wants to get a patent for, could be the whole thing)

- complete specification : filed if the invention is complete,

or later after submitting provisional.
Full, detailed disclosure of the invention
Required for examination , without it application for patent
is deemed withdrawn.

KEY COMPONENTS OF A COMPLETE SPECIFICATION:

- Title: concise name of the invention.
- Field of Invention: the Technical area of expertise (like
field of computers)
- Background: existing knowledge about the problem
and previous works
- Objective: Purpose of the invention
- Summary: brief overview of the invention.
- Detailed Description: of how the invention works
including best methods.

- Claims: legal definitions of the invention’s scope. (single

concept, clear , precise)
- Abstract: short summary usually used for patent
indexing.
- Drawings: visual representation, if necessary.

Types of patent applications –

- provisional – typically applied to establish a priority date
for an invention. Allows the applicant to receive “patent
pending” status for a year before filing for a full patent.
 - ordinary (non-provisional/regular) application: complete
application filled for a fully developed invention. Includes
detailed description of invention and claims for legal protection.
Application is immediately examined by the office.
-convention application – filed for invention already filed in
another country covered by a convention(countries agreed
through treaties)
- PCT international application – international patent
application filed under patent cooperation treaty , provides
unified procedure for filing patent application to protect
invention in multiple countries

-PCT national phase application – application filed in a

countries national office after filing internation pct.
- divisional application – continuation of an earlier patent
application that contained more than one invention.
- patent of addition – filed for improvements or
modifications to a granted patent.

The Patenting Process – process of applying for a

patent:

1. Patent filing:
- patent application must be filled with the relevant office
such as Indian patent office (IPO) united states patent office
(USPO) or the European patent office (EPO).
- patent must include detailed description, including
components operation and uses. Description must be very clear
and concise such that it can enable an ordinary person to make
and use the invention without experimentation.
- patent application must include claims that define the
scope of invention. Must be clear and concise
2. Patent Examination:
 - the patent examiner reviews the application to ensure it
meets all requirements for patentability, like novelty , non-
obviousness, utility.
Explain ,, ,, ,,.
- the patent officer may issue office actions like questions
or requests for clarification which the inventor has to reply
within a specific period.

3. Patent Grant:
- if the patent officer determines the invention is
patentable he will issue a notice of allowance.
Then the inventor has to pay the patent fee to get the exclusive
right to make use sell import for 20 years from date of patent
filing.

4. Revocation:
- patent can be revoked if it is determined to be invalid.
- can happen if deemed not novel or obvious or not useful.
Or if the invention was not adequately disclosed.
- can also be revoked if he fails to pay maintenance fee.
5. Equitable Assignment:
- its an agreement between two parties for ownership
transfer of patent.
- considerd equitable because not yet recorded with
patent office. However agreement is still binding on parties will
be enforced by court of law.
- once its recorded in patent office, assignee becomes
legal owner.

Types of patent licenses

- exclusive license
 - non exclusive license
- sole license
- field of use license
-territory of use license
-implied license

Patent Agents:
- patent agents are licensed professionals with technical
and legal expertise who help investors and companies secure
patents by preparing filing and prosecuting patent applications
with patent offices (IPO USPTO EPO) managing IP portfolios and
navigating complex IP laws and act as intermediary bw
investors and patent authority.
- they combine scientific/technical understanding with
legal procedure to ensure innovations are properly protected,
guiding applications from drafting to approval.

Responsibilities of a patent agent in india:

1 . patent application preparation: patent agents draft
and prepare patent applications ensuring they stick to
guidelines and standards set by the patent office (IPO). They
meticulously review the invention details, claims and
supporting documentation to ensure application meets criteria
for novelty non obviousness and utility.
2. patent prosecution: they represent inventors
throught the patent process engaging in communication with
patent authorities and examiners at ipo.
Addressing any objection/query raised by examiners providing
justification/clarification to support patentability.
3 . patent search and analysis: agent conducts
thorough patent searches to assess novelty and non
obviousness. Analyse prior data to identify existing patents and
publications that could impact the patentability.
4 . patent drafting and counselling: provide expert
advice and guidance on various aspects of patent law and
practice. Assist in drafting patent specifications, claims and
other related documents ensuring they comply with IPO
standards.
5 . Post-grant services: offer services to maintain and
protect patents. Handle renewals monitor patent infringement
cases and provide advice on ongoing patent relted maters.

QUALIFICATIONS OF A PATENT AGENT:

1. Educational Qualification: degree in science tech
engineering maths (STEM) from recognized university
is mandatory
2. Apprenticeship: two year apprenticeship under
register patent agent to gain practical experience in
drafting and prosecution.
3. Patent agent examination: passing the exam
conducted by Patent Agents of India (IPA) to
demonstrate competency in patent law and practice.

- 21 year Indian citizen

- online application with docs
- examinations
- registration with IPA office