7

ELECTRONICS
THERMIONICS VALVES:
Vacuum Diode:
AVacuum diode is the simplest of the vacuum tubes and
consists of two electrodes - a cathode from which electron
emission takes place and plate or anode, which collects these
electrons. These electrodes are cylindrical in shape. Figure
illustrates the construction of an indirectly heated diode.
The cathode is in the form of a cylindrical
sleeve. The heater filament is inserted inside
the cathode. The heater is made of tungsten.
The cathode surrounded by another
cylinder made of nickel which acts as anode.
Surface of the anode is usually blackened or
roughened to radiate the heat produced as PKFk P
the plate. Often cooling fins are attached to increase the
effective are of the anode from which radiation takes place.
Pin connections from all the electrodes including the heater
are brought out for external connections. The entire assembly
is placed inside glass envelope, which is then evacuated.

Working of a Vacuum Diode:

When the filament heater of a vacuum diode is connected to
an AC voltage source, it starts heating up the cathode. When
cathode temperature rises sufficiently, it starts electron
emission. Now if a potential positive with respect to cathode is
applied at the plate, it will attract the emitted electrons anda
129
Fundamentals of Bio-Medical Physics
130
reqular flow of electrons takes place through the Dath
indicated by thick arrows in Fig. The
flow of electrons means a flow of
electric current in the opp0site direction
and this is also indicated in the figure by
thin arrOWs.

Now if the voltage applied to the plate is reversed i.e plate is

made negative as compared to cathode, the plate now is
unable to attract the electrons and instead repels them back to
the cathode. The current that was flowing previously is
stopped but cannot reverse its direction because there can be
no emission from the unheated plate. The tube thus
possesses and unidirectionalconductivity i.e. current can flow
only from plate to cathode. The tube while conducting current
may, therefore, be represented by a closed switch and while
non-conducting by an open switch.
SEMICONDUCTORS:

PN JUNCTION:
In p-type semiconductor holes are majority charge carries and
negatively charged ions are stationary. While in n-type
semiconductor electrons are majority charge carriers and
positively charged ions are stationary. Both are electrically
neutral.

A p-n junction is formed by joining p

type and n-type semiconductor, such
that the crystal structure remains
continuous at boundary.

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As soon as the junction is formed, due to the concentration
difference and thermal energy holes from p-region diffuse into
the n-region and recombine with free electrons in the n-region.
Similarly, electrons from n-region diffuse into p-region and
recombine with holes in p-region. But, all holes and electrons
do not recombine, because, after a short time an electric field
is produced by stationary ions of both sides. This prevents
further recombination. Since, majority carriers are depleted
here, it is called "depletion region". It is known as barrier also,
because it acts as a barriers against diffusion of majority
charge carriers across the junction. The s0ze of this region
(-10-6 cm) is called the barrier width or width of depletion
layer. The potential difference across the barrier is called the
"barrier height" which is 0.7 V for Si, and 0.3V for Ge. The
circuit symbolfor the PNjunction diode is
CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE:
Forward Bias :

When p-region and n-region pn junctions are connected to the

positive and negative terminals of the battery, respectively,the
pn junction is said to be connected in Forward Bias.
Positive terminal of the battery repels
holes of p-region towards the junction
and the negative terminal of the battery
repels the electrons of n-region towards
the junction, i.e. barrier. Thus, majority
charge carriers of both regions are
compelled to cross the junction barrier
and hence, the width of the depletion
region as well as the barrier height both decreases. Hence,
the electron flows continuously across the junction and the

Fundamentals of Bio-Medical Physics

132
the battery voltage is
current flows in external circuit. If
increased, barrier height decreases and the current in th
circuit increases.

Reverse Bias:
When n-region and p-region of pn Junctions are connected to
the positive and negative terminals of the batery,
respectively.
the pn junction is said to be connected in Reverse bias. Holee
in the p-region and electrons in the n-region ie.
majority
charge carriers are attracted towards the respective terminals
of the battery. So they move away from the barrier junction.
and the width of depletion layer increases.
This makes more difficult for majority I
mA FB
carriers to across the junction. But,
this increased barrier height supports
thermally generated minority carriers
to cross the junction and hence, a
Ysp
current of the order of micro to nano
ampere flows. This reverse current I
RB
depends only on the temperature of
the junction and to the reverse bias
voltage. So, it is also called reverse saturation current.
BREAKDOWN:

When the reverse voltage is increased beyond the certain unit,

called breakdown voltage, VBo. (VBo), the reverse current
increases suddenly. This may occur due to two reasons,
()Zener breakdown (ii) Avalanche breakdown.
Zener Breakdown :When reverse voltage is increased, the
barrier potential also increases which creates large electric
field at junction. This field pulls out electron from the covalent

Fundamentals of Bio-Medical Physics

 133
bonds breaking them and a large number of charge
carriers are generated which increases the current in the
crcuit. This phenomenon is called Zener breakdown.
Avalanche BreakdownThe increased electric field increases
the velocity of minority carriers. These carriers with
high
kinetic energy break covalent bonds, producing a large
number of free charge carriers. These newly produced carriers
again break another bond and the chain reaction is
established. Hence, the large current is
flowing, this
phenomenon is called avalanche breakdown.

Comparison between a Vacuum Diode and a PN-Diode.

1. Semi-conductor diodes do not require any heater supply.
This considerably reduces hum.
2. Semi-conductor diodes have very small intei alectrode
capacitoance as compared to vacuum diodes. This is very
important in high frequency applications.
3. Semi conductor diodes have lower forward resistance as
compared to tubes.
4. Semi-conductor diodes do not produce any current in the
absence of applied voltage. In tubes, there is a small
current due to Contact potential. This current produces
errors when avacuum diode is Used in instruments.
5. Semi-conductor diodes can be easily incorporated in the
wiring. This cannot be done with vacuum diodes.
6. Semi-conductor diodes have a lightweight and a small
volume as compared to vacuum diodes.
7. Tubes can withstand high reverse voltages as Compared
to P-N diodes.

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8. Semi-conductor diode characteristics change with a

change in the operating temperature while tubes have
stable characteristics.

9. Semi-conductor diodes pass a reverse current whereas

there is no reverse leakage current in tubes.

Zener diode : This are specially fabricated diode in which the

dopping level is set by the manufacturer that it get break down
at the desired reverse voltage. The circuit symbolfor the zener
diode is

Zener diode finds application as a voltage regulator in power

supplies.
ZENER DIODE AS AVOLTAGE REGULATOR:

The voltage supplied by an unregulated power supply may

fluctuate due to either the fluctuations in the input ac voltage
or due to the change in load resistance and hence the current.
Due to the ability of a Zener diode to operate in the breakdown
region without being damaged and keeping the voltage across
itself constant, it has found a wide range of applications in the
regulator and the stabilizer circuits.
Rs As shown in the circuit
diagram the Zener regulator
circuit consists of a series
resistor Rs. Zener diode is
connected parallel to the
Load Resistor RL. The unreg
-ulated input voltage V, is applied to the circuit.

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 135
When the voltage across R is less than the Zener
break down voltage Vz, the Zener diode does not conduct.
The Resistors Rs and RL make the potential divider across V,.
When the voltage across RL becomes greater than the Zener
Break down voltage, Zener diode operates in the breakdown
region. The current is flowing through the series resistance RS
splits at ajunction as, Iç= l, +I,
In the break down region, the voltage acrOSs the
Zener diode
remains constant. If the load current I increases the current I,
through the Zener falls by the same amount to maintain a
constant current Is. This keeps the voltage drop across RL
constant. Thus, the output voltage V, remains constant. When
the load current decreases, the Zener diode passes an extra
current l,, Such that I, is kept constant.
If the input voltage V, increases, the Zener diode passes a
large current so that an extra voltage is dropped across Rs. If
V, falls, the Zener current l, also falls. This
reduces the
voltage across R_.
Thus, in both the cases the output voltage Vo remains
constant.

Varactor Diodes :
When the P-N junction is reverse biased, the width of the
depletion layer increases and this region of immobile charges
behaves as a dielectric and the diode in reverse bias can be
Compared with a charged capacitor. Such a capacitor has a
capacitance that is dependent upon the area of the junction,
width of the depletion region as well as the permittivity of the
depletion region. If A is the area of the junction, Wis the width
of depletion region and [ is the permittivity of the depletion of
region, then capacitance C is given as,
C= ^w
Fundamentals of Bio-Medical Physics
134
8. Semi-conductor diode characteristics change with a
change in the operating temperature while tubes have
stable characteristics.
9. Semi-conductor diodes pass a reverse current whereas
there is no reverse leakage current in tubes.

Zener diode : This are specially fabricated diode in which the

dopping level is set by the manufacturer that it get break down
at the desired reverse voltage. The circuit symbol for the zener
diode is

Zener diode finds application as a voltage regulator in power

supplies.

ZENER DIODE AS AVOLTAGE REGULATOR:

The voltage supplied by an unregulated power supply may
fluctuate due to either the fluctuations in the input ac voltage
or due to the change in load resistance and hence the current.
Due to the ability of a Zener diode to operate in the breakdown
region without being damaged and keeping the voltage across
itself constant, it has found a wide range of applications in the
regulator and the stabilizer circuits.
Rs As shown the circuit
Is I diagram the Zener regulator
I, circuit consists of a series
resistor Rs. Zener diode is
connected parallel to the
Load Resistor RL. The unreg
-ulated input voltage V,is applied to the circuit.

Fundamentals of Bio-Medical Physics

 135
When the voltage across R, is less than the Zener
break down voltage Vz. the Zener diode does not conduct.
The Resistors Rs and R make the potential divider 2cross V.
When the voltage across R, becomes greater than the Zener
Break down voltage, Zener diode operates in the breakdown
region. The current is ftlowing through the series resistance RS
splits at a junction as, Is = I,+ 1,
In the break down region, the voltage across the Zener diode
remains constant. If the load current I increases the current I,
through the Zener falls by the same amount to maintain a
constant current I_. This keeps the voltage drop across RL
constant. Thus, the output voltage V, remains constant. When
the load current decreases, the Zener diode
passes an extra
current lz, such that I, is kept constant.
If the input voltage V, increases, the Zener diode passes a
large current so that an extra voltage is dropped across Rs. If
V falls, the Zener current I, also falls. This
reduces the
voltage across Rs.
Thus, in both the cases the output voltage Vo remains
constant.

Varactor Diodes:
When the P-N junction is reverse biased, the width of the
depletion layer increases and this region of immobile charges
behaves as a dielectric and the diode in reverse bias can be
Compared with a charged capacitor. Such a capacitor has a
capacitance that is dependent upon the area of the junction,
width of the depletion region as well as the permittivity of the
depletion region. If A is the area of the junction, W is the width
of depletion region and [ is the permittivity of the depletion of
region, then capacitance Cis given as,
C= w
Fundamentals of Bio-Medical Physics
136
In agiven diode, area A of the junction and
permittivity g of
the depletion region is constant. Also the width W of the
depletion region is directly proporuonal to the square root of
the reverse bias applied thus it reverse bias
applied is V volts
then,
C= y=y here, K= sA, is a constant.
Silicon diodes are especially fabricated to produce
maximum
variable capacitance effect are called Varactor diodes. The
figure gives the symbol of a Varactor diode.
Variation of its capacitance for variation Max
in applied bias in shown in this figure.
Varactor diodes are used as tuning
capacitors in electronic tuners. They are
also used in parametric amplifiers at
microwave frequencies.
Reverse vottage
Light Emittirg Diode :
In ordinary PN junction diodes, the energy given off by free
electrons during recombination is in the form of heat. If the
energy released by an electron is in the form of light or
photons, then the device is termed as the light-emitting diode
or LED.

The circuit symbol for the LED is

Diodes manufactured from germanium and silicon, do not give
out light energy during recombination of electrons and holes. If
diodes are manufactured with materials like gallium arsenide
phosphide (GaAsP) and gallium phosphide (GaP), they are
found to radiate red green or orange lights. Thus, these diodes
may be used as LEDs. A LED manufactured with gallium

Fundamentals of Bio-Medical Physics

 137
arsenide produces infra-red radiation. This LED is used in
burglar-alarm.
PHOTO DIODE:
When the reverse biased PN junction is illuminated the energy
of the incident photon break some of the covalent bond and
produce free electron-hole pair. These electron cross over the
junction and constitute the current, called photo current Ip, due
to the light. The leakage current flowing even in absence of
the light is called the dark current. Usually in ordinary diode
and transistors this photo current is prevented by enclosing
them in a light proof metalic can or plastics. The photocurrent
varies
Photo
cmet
linearly with the intensity of light radiation incident on
the junction, as shown in the first graph.
Itenu'y

Dant Tntensit
+foiwd vett lev. vlt
The V characteristic of the photodiode is shown in the
second graph, where the photocurrent increases with the
reverse voltage for the given intensity of the incident light
radiation.
RECTIFIER:
The device, which converts ac signal into dc signal is called
rectifier. The unidirectional conducting property of diode is
exploited in rectifiers. Depending upon the performance
rectifiers may be classified as under :

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138
HALF WNAVE RECRTIFIER:
As shown in the circuit
the ac signal which isdiagram,
to be
converted into dc, is connected
to the primary of the
R step-down
transformer. The secondary of
the transformer is
adiode and a load
connected to
in series.
resistance R
Working:During the positive half cycle of the voltage across
the secondary, one end of the secondary becomes positive to
which the p-region of the diode is connected. Hence the diode
becomes forward biased and conducts, so the current I, is
flowing through the load R. Since the diode resistance in the
forward bias is very low, all the voltage (developed across the
secondary) appears across the load resistance as shown in
the figure.
During the negative
half cycle of the input
Vin voltage, the polarity of
secondary is reversed
and diode becomes
reverse biased. No
current flows through the
load resistance and all
the voltage appearS
across the diode.
because the diode
resistance in the reverse
bias is very high..The
voltage across the diode

Fundamentals of Bio-\Medical Phsics

 139
during the negative half cycle of an input is called the Peak
Inverse Voltage (PIV). Here PIV=Vm. Where, Vm is the
maximum amplitude of the ac signal. The ripple factor in such
rectifier is 1.21 and the efficiency is 40.6%.
FULL NAVE RECTIFIER:

Full wave rectifier utilizes both the half cycles of the ac input
Sothe current flows for the complete cycle of an input signal.
There are two types of FW rectifiers namely Center-tap
rectifier and Bridge rectifier. The ripple factor in such rectifier
is 0.48 and the efficiency is 81.2 %. Ds
Center-Tap Rectifier :
As shown in the figure, the
secondary of the transformer is
center tapped. A diode D, and D,
are connected to the load
resistance RL. The either end of
the load resistance is connected to
the center tapping of the
secondary of the transformer.
During the positive half cycle of the
circuit of the input, diode D, becomes
forward biased and the current flows
through RL. Here D, is reverse biased.
During negative half cycle D, becomes
reverse biased but D, forward bias
hence, the current flows through load
resistance R. Thus in both the case current flows through R
in the same direction and the potential difference appears
across the load resistance Ri. The output waveform is as

Fundamentals of Bio-Medical Physics

 140
under. For the positive half cycle of input
diode D, and for negative half cycle of input current is due to
diode D, current is throuah
Peak Inverse voltage : When diode D, is
very low resistance, hence, all the conducting it offers
the upper half of the voltage developed across
the load resistance [Link] winding Vm appears across
So when diode D, is not
the voltage across it, is the sum of conducting.
the voltage drop across the
load resistance R, and the voltage
across the lower half of the
secondary winding. i.e. PIV in case of the center tap rectifier
is Vmt Vm= 2Vm.

BRIDGE RECTIFIER:
As shown in the
figure,
D center tap of secondary is
not required, but four diodes
are used instead of two.
During one of the half cycle
Dg D, of input at the secondary,
point A becomes positive
with respect to point C. So, diode D, and D, becomes forward
bias and current flows through load resistance R in the
direction B to D.

During the other half cycle of the input at the secondary C

becomes positive with respect to A. So, diode D, and D3
becomes forward biased. Again the current flows through the
load resistance R, in the same direction B to D. Thus, for the
complete cycle of an input signal, the rectification takes place.
When diodes D, and D, (or D, and Da) are conducting they
offers very lo resistance, so all the voltage across the
secondary Vm appears across the load resistance RL. At the

Fundamentals of Bio-Medical Physics

 14|
same time diode D, and D, (or D, and D,) are non
conducting. So this Vm appears across each of D, and Da (or
D, and D3). Thus PIV in case of bridge rectifier is Vm
TRASNSISTOR:

Athree electrode semiconductor device which consists of two

PN junctions formed keep one of the region common, s the
transistor. One type of the semiconductor, either p-type (or n
type) is sandwitched between the two pieces of other type of
semiconductor i.e. n-type (or p-type). Since the PN junction
offers very low resistance in forward bias and very high
resistance in reverse bias, one of the junction of the transistor
is forward biased and the other junction is reverse biased
Thus, here occurs trans'er of resistor across two junctions of
the device, hence, called trans(fer) of (res)istor ie transistor.
One of the region is called emitter, the other collector and the
central region is called base. VWhen p-type semiconductor is
inserted between two n-type semiconductors, the transistor is
called n-p-n transistor. Similarly there may be p-n-p transistor.
The middle region of the transistor is
E C
called the base while other two are
called emitter and collector. Emitter is
heavily doped compared to the collector
while the collector is little bigger in size
compared to the emitter. The base
PNP e NPN region is very narrow (i.e. of
small size) and also very lightly doped. Usually, the emitter
junction is forward biased and the collector junction is reverse
biased. Such a transistor can be connected in three different
modes viz. common base, common emitter and cCommon
collector. As their name suggests these three configurations

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142
are obtained by keeping the respective electrode common
for two sections (input and output) of the transistor circuit.
Working of a Transistor:
Since a transistor has two PN junctions, there are four
possible ways in which we can bias device. These conditions
are

1 Both junctions reverse biased: When both junctions

are reverse biased, the device will have very large input
and output resistances. The current through the device is
practically zero and the device is said to be cut-off and
acts as an open switch.
2 Both junctions forward biased : In this condition, both
the junctions offer an easy flow of current, input as well as
output resistance is very low. The device is said to be in
saturation and acts as a closed switch.
3 Emitter-Base junction forward biased and collector
base junction reverse biased: In this condition, the emitter
base junction resistance is small whereas collector-base
junction has very large resistance. Since emitter base
junction acts as the input junction and collector base
junction acts as the output junction the device will have a
small input resistance and a large output resistance.
Under this condition, if a signal is given across the input
junction, we shall get an amplified signal across the
output. The transistor is said to work in the active region
with this biasing arrangement.
4 Emitter-Base junction reverse biased and collector
Base junction for ward biased : This is termed as the

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 143
inverted condition. The transistor action ceases in this
condition. This condition is not practically used
TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER:
An electronic device, which increases the level of
input signal
(i.e. voltagelcurrent or both) with the help of de source, is
called an amplifier. The circuit diagram for the single
stage
transistor amplifier is shown in the figure. Here, R, and R; are
the biasing resistors. Rç and R are resistors at the collector
and emitter respectively. Cc1 and Ccz are coupling
capacitors,
which couples input and output
with an amplifier. +Vcc is the
positive terminal of the dc
Source, the negative of which
is grounded C is the capacitor
conne ted at the emitter, that
bypasses the ac signal from
the emitter.

The signal voltage Vs, which is to be emplifies is connected

across the resistor R, through coupling capacitor Cc. As the
signal voltage Vs increases to its peak value from the zero, the
base current la to the transistor also increases. If the dc
current gain of the transistor is B., then the
corresponding
change occurs into the collector current lc. Since lç= ß lg.
Thus, the change in potential due to the signal voltage V, at
input, changes the base current Ig, which results into the
change in collector current lç.
Now, in the output loop excluding the load resistor, applying
Kirchhoffs voltage law

Fundamentals of Bio-Medical Physics

 146
difference in the values of the components exist between
the two halves of the circuit and cause collector current of one
transistor to rise at a faster rate than that of the colletor
current of the other transistor.

To understand the operation of the

circuit, assume, the collector current H
of transistor T, rising at a faster rate
than collector current of T, when the
power is switched on to the circuit.
This would amount toa fall in T,collector voltage. This fall in
voltage is reflected as a negative pulse of voltage to the base
of transistor T2. This is amplified and appears as a positive
pulse at the collector of T,, which is applied to the base of T2
through the coupling network CzRe2. As a result of this positive
going pulse, the collector current of T2 is further increased.
The process being cumulative in a short time, transistor T, is
saturated while T, is cut off. However the TË collector potential
does not rise instantly to the supply voltage because of C2,
which also must charge to the same potential. Therefore,
charging current flows through RL, Cz E-B junction of T2. At
the same time, when C, is charging C, which was previously
charged discharges through transistor T; which behaves as a
closed switch. This discharge path is also shown in the figure
and indicated in the waveforms.
As long as C continues to charge
the charging rrent flowing
through T, base keeps it saturated.
But when C becomes fully

Fundamentals of Bio-Medical Physics

 147
charged, the base current stops to flow and transistor T,
comes out of saturation.

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE: (CRO)

The cathode ray Oscilloscope is the most versatile tool for the
development of electronic circuits. Rather in the field of
instrumentation, including medical instruments, it is the core
"device in the monitoring instruments. Basically it allows the
amplitude of electrical signals, whether they be voltage,
current, power etc. to be displayed primarily as a function of
time. Thus, CRO is very fast x-y plotter. Four major parts of
CRO are as follows;
Cathode-ray-tube (CRT):
The cathode ray tube, CRT is the heart of a CRO. As shown in
the following figure, it consists of an electron gun, accelerating
Veaticle Delay
Signal Ampliftet cieuit

--LV PS

Time Ba Moigai
cIKuit Generato

and focusing anodes, pairs of metallic plates kept parallel to

each other in vertical and horizontal directions. The pair of
vertical plates are called horizontal deflection plates while the
pair of horizontal plates are called vertical deflection plates. AII
these parts are arranged in a funnel shaped glass tube, which

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148
is evacuated. The wider diameter end is coated with some
phosphor materialto produce the fluorescence.
Electrons are emitted from the electron gun and first focused
by the focusing anode and than accelerated by the
accelerating anode. Such an accelerated beam of electron
passes through horizontal and vertical deflecting plates and
get incidence on the phosphor coating where it produces a
fluorescence i.e. visible spot is observed at the florescence
screen. If the proper voltages are applied across pars
deflecting plates, the beam of electron can be deflected in
horizontal or in vertical direction and hence a visible spot in
the screen can be moved left-right or up-down.
Vertical deflection system:
The vertical deflection system consists of vertical amplifier and
delay circuit. The signal which is to be studies is connected to
y-input of CRO i.e. to vertical amplifier, where the signal is first
amplified before feeding to vertical deflecting plates. In order
to ensure the simultaneous application of the signals at both
deflection plates of CRT, the signal from the vertical amplifier
is hold through the delay circuit.
Horizontal deflection system:
The horizontal deflection system consists of Trigger circuit.
time base generator and the horizontal amplifier. The signal
from the vertical amplifier is fed to the Trigger circuit which
triggers (initiates) the function of time base generator. The
time base generator produces a saw-tooth pulse of desired
frequency. The signal from the time base generator is
amplified by horizontal amplifier and than applied to the
horizontal deflecting plates of CRT. Since in horizontal
deflection system there are three different stages of initiation,
Fundamentals of Bio-Medical Physucs
 149
production and amplification of the signal the delay circuit
is used in vertical deflection system, so that both the signals
may be applied simultaneously to both the pairs of deflecting
plates.

Power supplies:
The CRO requires the electrical power for an operation. TwO
types of power supply are used in CRO. The one with high
voltage output is used for the CRT and to cater the various
electronic circuits, the low voltage power supply is used
Applications of CRO
(i) To study the wave form of the ac
signal or pulse.
(i) To measure voltage, current, power or frequency of the ac
signals
(i) Along with the proper transducers various physical and
biological parameter can be studied and analyzed by the
CRO.

Fwndamentals of Bo-Medical Physics