PHYSICAL SCIENCE CONCEPT NOTES  Ernest Rutherford discovered the

nucleus through the gold foil

Development of Atomic Theory experiment.
 This experiment showed that most of the
1. Ancient Ideas About Matter atom is empty space.
 Protons are positively charged particles
 Democritus was an ancient Greek found in the nucleus.
philosopher who first proposed that  Neutrons are neutral particles found in
matter is made of tiny, indivisible the nucleus.
particles called atoms.  The nucleus is the dense center of the
 The word atom comes from the Greek atom containing protons and neutrons.
word “atomos,” meaning indivisible.  Rutherford’s model replaced the plum
 Democritus believed that atoms are pudding model with a nucleus-centered
eternal, solid, indivisible, and differ in atom.
size and shape.
 He also proposed that atoms move
through the void, which means empty
space. 3. Bohr Model of the Atom
 Leucippus, Democritus’ teacher, also
supported the idea of atoms moving in  Niels Bohr proposed that electrons
the void. move in fixed energy levels (or orbits)
 In ancient India, Maharishi Kanad around the nucleus.
proposed that matter is made of tiny  Electrons can jump between energy
indivisible particles called anu. levels by absorbing or emitting energy.
 Some philosophers believed in  The innermost shell is the first energy
continuous division, the idea that level (n = 1).
matter can be divided endlessly without  When electrons fall to a lower energy
reaching a smallest particle. level, they emit light or electromagnetic
 Aristotle rejected atomism and radiation.
proposed that matter is made of four  The Bohr model successfully explained
elements: earth, water, air, and fire. the line spectrum of hydrogen.
 Aristotle emphasized observation and  The energy needed for an electron to
reasoning rather than pure speculation. move to a higher level is called
 Ancient atomists believed that atoms excitation energy.
combine in different ways to form  The formula 2n² gives the maximum
different substances. number of electrons in an energy level.
 Valence electrons are electrons in the
outermost shell.
 The Bohr model works best for
2. Discovery of Subatomic Particles hydrogen.
 A major limitation of Bohr’s model is that
 J.J. Thomson discovered the electron it cannot explain multi-electron atoms.
using the cathode ray tube experiment.
 He proposed the plum pudding model,
where electrons are embedded in a
positively charged sphere. 4. Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
  The Quantum Mechanical Model was o Sublevels: s, p, d, f
developed by Erwin Schrödinger. 3. Magnetic quantum number (mₗ)
 It is also called the Electron Cloud o Describes the orientation of the
Model. orbital in space
 Electrons do not move in fixed orbits but 4. Spin quantum number (mₛ)
exist in regions called orbitals. o Indicates electron spin: +½ or
 An orbital is a region where there is a −½
high probability of finding an electron.
 The model is based on the Schrödinger  The s orbital is spherical.
equation.  Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2
 The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle electrons.
states that it is impossible to know both  The p sublevel has 3 orbitals, each
the exact position and momentum of an holding 2 electrons.
electron at the same time.  The d sublevel contains 5 orbitals.
 For n = 3, the maximum number of
electrons is 18.

5. Quantum Numbers and Electron

Arrangement
6. Electron Configuration Rules
Quantum numbers describe the energy,
position, and behavior of electrons.  Aufbau Principle: Electrons fill lowest
energy orbitals first.
1. Principal quantum number (n)  Pauli Exclusion Principle: Each orbital
o Indicates the energy level and can hold 2 electrons with opposite
size of the orbital spins.
2. Angular momentum quantum number  Hund’s Rule: Electrons fill empty
(l) orbitals singly before pairing.
o Describes the shape of the
orbital