Chapter 3
Wave Properties of Particles
de Broglie Waves
A photon of light with frequency f has the momentum:
hf h
p= =
c
h
The photon wavelength can be expressed as =
p
The relativistic wavelength for a particle of mass m
moving with velocity v 2
−1
h v
= = 1−
mv c
Waves of probability
• A matter wave can be represented by
wave function,
• associated with a body at a point (x, y, z,
t) is related to the probability of finding that
body there at time t.
• has no direct physical significance
• The reason why can not be interpreted in
terms of experiment because of the probabilistic
nature of wave function itself
• The probability statistic lies between 0 and 1 (for
example, 0.3 means 30% of finding that object
there)
• But the magnitude of a wave can be positive or
negative
• A negative probability is meaningless!
• 2 is known as probability density
• 2 probability of experimentally finding
the body described by the wave function
at the point (x, y, z) at time t
• The higher the value of 2, the higher
the chances to locate the body
• It is very often very difficult to calculate the
magnitude of 2 as a function of time and
position
To describe wave:
• If a wave can represent a moving body, we expect
them to have the same velocity
• The de broglie wave velocity, vp, can be written as:
v p = f
• The de broglie wavelength, = h/mv
mc 2
E = hf ; E = mc 2
;f =
h
mc2 h c 2
De droglie phase velocity : v p = f = =
h mv v
Since the velocity of particle is always
less than the speed of light, the de
broglie waves travel faster than the
speed of light!
Mathematically, wave can be described as: y = Acos(2ft)
or a wave formula can be written as: y = Acos2(ft – x/)
Angular frequency: = 2f (rads-1) – moving around a circle f
times per second sweeps out 2f rad/s
Wave number: k = 2/ = / vp (radm-1) – the number of
radians corresponding to a wave train 1 m long (i.e. 2 rad in
one complete wave)
The wave formula is now become:
y = Acos(t – kx)
Phase and group velocity
• A moving body corresponds to a wave packet or
wave group (effect of being beats)
• Phase velocity: p v =
k
d
• Velocity of the wave group vg = or v g =
k dk
(group velocity):
The resultant of the addition of many sine
waves (of different wavelengths and
possibly different amplitudes)
• The angular frequency and wave number of the de broglie waves associated
with a body of mass m moving with the velocity v are:
2mc2 2mc2
= 2f = =
h h 1− v2 / c2
2 2mv 2mv
k= = =
h h 1− v2 / c2
d 2mv
The group velocity vg of the de =
broglie waves associated with dv h( 1 − v 2 / c 2 )3 / 2
the body is:
dk 2m
d d / dv =
vg = = dv h( 1 − v 2 / c 2 )3 / 2
dk dk / dv
de Broglie group velocity: vg = v
• The de Broglie wave group associated with a
moving body travels with the same velocity as
the body
de Broglie phase velocity: vp = /k = c2/v
As v < c, vp exceeds both v and c , but vg is the
one has got physical significance that corresponds
to the motion of the body
Electron diffraction
From accident to discovery
Particle Diffraction: Davisson and
Germer experiment
The Bragg planes of atoms in
the crystal were not parallel to
the crystal surface
= 65o (angle between the incidence and
scattering relative to the family of Bragg
planes
The lattice spacing, d = 0.091 nm
(determined from x-ray diffraction)
For n = 1
= 2d sin = ( 2 )( 0.091nm ) sin 65o = 0.165nm
Now, is this consistent with the de Broglie wavelength?
• De Broglie wavelength, = h/mv
• The KE of electron which is 54 eV is small compared
to its rest energy, E = moc2 = 0.51 MeV, so ~ 1
1 2
KE = mv mv = 2mKE
2
= ( 2 )( 9.110 −31 kg )( 54eV )( 1.6 10 −19 J / eV
= 4.0 10 −24 kg m / s
h 6.63 10−34 J s
electron wavelength, = = − 24
= 0.166nm
mv 4.0 10 kg m / s
Particle in a box
• a particle is confined to a box of width L
• the particle is assumed to move back and
forth a long a straight line between the
walls of the box
• the particle does not lose energy each
time it strikes the wall
•The particle’s velocity is sufficiently
small
• a particle trapped in a box behaves like
a standing wave
• = 0 at the walls as the particle stops
there
•The possible de Broglie wavelength is
2L, L, 2L/3 and so on…
So, the de Broglie wavelength, n
for a trapped particle is
therefore:
2L
n = n = 1,2 ,3...
n
• Because mv = h/, is limited by the width of the
box (as well as for its momentum!)
• Thus, the particle’s KE is:
1 2 ( mv )2 h2
KE = mv = =
2 2m 2m2
• The only energy that the particle has is (PE = 0):
2 2
nh
En = n = 1,2,3...
8mL2
En is called the energy level at the quantum number n
Some conclusions about particle in a box
• A trapped particle has only a certain energy
(according to n)
• A trapped particle can not have zero energy,
otherwise the wavelength is infinite ( =h/mv)
• Energy quantization is only conspicuous when
m and L are small – the Planck’s constant is so
small, i.e. 6.63 10-34 Js
• A minimum energy the marble can have is
5.5 10-64 J, i.e. when n = 1.
• This energy is equivalent to the speed of
3.3 10-31 m/s!!! (almost static!)
• A reasonable speed, say, 1/3 m/s, this is
the energy level of n = 1030!!! The allowed
energy levels are too close to each other!
The Uncertainty Principle,
Introduction
• In classical mechanics, it is possible, in
principle, to make measurements with
arbitrarily small uncertainty
• Quantum theory predicts that it is
fundamentally impossible to make
simultaneous measurements of a particle’s
position and momentum with infinite
accuracy
Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle, Statement
• The Heisenberg uncertainty principle
states: if a measurement of the position of
a particle is made with uncertainty x and
a simultaneous measurement of its x
component of momentum is made with
uncertainty p, the product of the two
uncertainties can never be smaller than
x p x
2
Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle, Explained
• It is physically impossible to measure
simultaneously the exact position and
exact momentum of a particle
• The inescapable uncertainties do not arise
from imperfections in practical measuring
instruments
• The uncertainties arise from the quantum
structure of matter
Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle, Another Form
• Another form of the uncertainty principle
can be expressed in terms of energy
and time
E t
2
• This suggests that energy conservation
can appear to be violated by an amount
E as long as it is only for a short time
interval t