Physics Notes for ECE stream by Dr.

PR Module 4- Photonics 1

Module 4- PHOTONICS A plot of Intensity (Power per unit area) of the

black body radiation emitted versus their
RADIATION: wavelength represents the black body radiation
It is a process by which energy is transmitted curve.
from one region to another region without The black body radiation curve shows that the
disturbing the molecules of a substance. black body does radiate energy at every
wavelength. Black body emits maximum energy
BLACK BODY: A body which absorbs all the at a particular wavelength called peak wavelength.
radiations incident on it and emits them when At each temperature the black body emits a
heated is called a black body. standard amount of energy. This is represented by
No radiation passes through black body and none the area under the curve.
is reflected. But when a black body is heated it
emits radiations with the continuous range of Wein’s theory: Wein proposed that wavelength
wavelengths. A portion of this radiation will be corresponding to maximum intensity of black
visible and the remaining will be distributed body radiation spectrum decreases towards lower
ultraviolet and infra red. The term "black body" wavelength with increase in the temperature.
was introduced by Kirchhoff in 1860 and it has a 1
Therefore max  . Wein derived the
special place in the history of quantum mechanics. T
following relation for the energy emitted by the
black body.
− 2c
U d = C  e
 1
−5 T d
where Uλdλ is the energy per unit volume for
wavelengths in the range λ and λ+dλ and C1 and
C2 are constants. This equation is known as
Wein’s distribution equation for black body
Black Body Radiation spectrum.
The phenomenon of emission of radiations of all
possible wavelengths by a black body when it is According to Wein’s equation the energy of the
heated is known as the black body radiation. emitted radiation increases with increase in the
Stefan’s law: The amount of radiations energy wavelength from ultraviolet to infrared. However
emitted / sec/ unit area by a black body is directly In the black body spectrum the increase in
proportional to the fourth power of its temperature energy with increase in wavelength appears only
(T) i.e. E=T4 Where  is constant and is called in the lower wavelength range. But in the higher
Stefan’s constant. Its value of  = 5.67 x 10-8 wavelength range the energy of the black body
Wm⁻²K⁻⁴. radiation decreases. Thus Wein’s equation
Black body spectrum: accounts the energy distribution only in the
shorter wavelength. It failed to longer wavelength
range.

Rayleigh-Jeans theory: Rayleigh and Jean’s

considered that electromagnetic radiation was
emitted due to the oscillations of atoms in the
walls of the black body (Cavity). This radiation
sets up a standing wave between the walls. The
power emitted from the blackbody is proportional
to the radiation energy density in the cavity.
Based on statistical mechanics and the principle
of equi-partition of energy, Rayleigh and Jeans
arrived at an expression for number of modes in
the cavity in the wavelength range d λ, as given

RNS Institute of Technology Physics Notes for ECE stream

 Physics Notes for ECE stream by Dr. PR Module 4- Photonics 2

below. U(λ)d λ = 8π λ -4 d λ. According to kinetic Planck’s Explanation of Black body radiation:

theory the average energy per mode is kBT.
According to Planck law radiation exists in the
The energy density emitted by the cavity is given form particles called Quanta. The energy
by u(λ)dλ = (Number of modes in cavity) × contained in each quantum is E= hγ, If a black
(energy of each mode) body emits n quanta then the total energy emitted
The radiation energy density emitted by the cavity is E= nhγ. The absorption and emission of energy
is U(λ) dλ = 8π λ-4 dλ × kBT by a Black body is in terms of quanta.
Rayleigh- Jean’s (R-J) equation is given by
U() d = 8kT −4 d According to Planck when an oscillator changes
As per the equation, energy radiated by a black from a higher energy state E1 to a lower state E2,
body is expected to decrease with increase in the discrete amount of energy E1 − E2 is equal to
wavelength which is clear from the curve of black the product of frequency of the radiation and
body radiation spectrum. Thus R-J equation planck’s constant h. i.e., E1 − E2 = hν.
correctly predicts the fall of intensity of the
radiation towards the longer wavelength side. Based on the quantum theory Planck derived the
However, in lower wavelength range of black following expression for the energy density of the
body the intensity increases. Thus R-J equation black body.
fails to explain lower wavelength range of black
body spectrum.
8hc 1
U  d = d
PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY OF 5 hc .
RADIATION
Max Planck introduced a hypothesis which states
(e kT − 1)
that emission or absorption of radiation of a This equation is called Planck’s energy density
particular frequency (  ) takes place as an integral equation. This is found to be in full agreement
multiple of a minute packet of energy called with the energy distribution curve of the black
quantum. body radiation. This can be explained by reducing
the Planck’s equation to Wein’s and Rayleigh-
Postulates (Assumptions) of Planck’s theory: Jeans equation.
1) Walls of black body consists of a very
large number of oscillators, with each Reduction of Planck’s Equation to Wein’s
oscillator having its own frequency. Equation
2) The energy possessed by an oscillator is an c
For shorter wavelengths  = is large. When 
integral multiple of h, where h is Planck’s 
constant &  is frequency of oscillator.
3) An oscillator may lose or gain energy by is large, e h kT
is very large i.e e hc kT >> 1
emitting or absorbing a radiation of
frequency ‘’ whose value is given by  =
( e hc kT -1)  e hc kT
Using this in the Planck’s equation
 E  where E is the difference in the
 
 h  8hc  1 
U  d = d
5  e hc kT − 1
value of energies of the oscillator before We get
and after the emission or absorption takes
place.  8hc 
4)
U  d =  5 hc kT  d
PHOTON: Einstein renamed Quantum as Photon.
 e 
Thus photon is quantum of radiation  hc 
Let 8hc= C1 &   = C 2 . Where C1 and C2 are
(electromagnetic energy). Its energy is E= hγ,  k 
where h is Planck’s constant (h=6.625x10-34 JS) constants. Substituting these in the above equation
and γ is the frequency of radiation.  C 
(i) Photon has no charge we get U  d =  5 C21 T  d . It is also written as
 e 
(ii) It has no rest mass −5 − C2 T
(iii) Its speed in free space is 3x108 m/s U  d = C1 e d This is Wein’s equation.
(iv) Frequency of photon does not change
when it changes the medium.
RNS Institute of Technology Physics Notes for ECE stream
 Physics Notes for ECE stream by Dr. PR Module 4- Photonics 3

Reduction of Planck’s Equation to Rayleigh- Where E2-E1 = hγ and K is Boltzman constant.

Jean’s Equation. _ E
c N N2 1
For longer wavelengths,  = is small. When   2= e KT  = E
 N1 N1
h e KT
is small, is very small. For small values of ΔE= hγ is always positive as E2>E1
kT
N2
h < 1 or N2 < N1 or N1>N2
the term e h kT can be expanded using power N1
kT
series. Thus under ordinary conditions the population of
h kT any higher energy state is less than the population
The power series expansion is given by e = of its lower energy state. In contrary if the
h 
2
population in any of its higher energy states is
h 
3
   h  made more than the population of any of its lower
1+ + +  +…….
kT  kT   kT  energy state then the population inversion is said
h to be achieved.
Since is very small, its higher power terms
kT
could be neglected.  e
h kT
=1+
h LASER
kT LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification
h h
 (e h kT − 1) = 1 +
hc by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The word
−1 = =
kT kT kT LASER also refers to the operation of an
Substituting this result in the Planck’s important optical device (light device).
8hc  1  The theory of amplification of light was explained
equation U  d = 5  h kT d we by Einstein and the amplified light is called
 e − 1 LASER. Thus Laser is amplified light.
 
 8hc  8kT
get U  d =   d  U  d = d OR CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER
 5  hc  
  4 (i) COHERENCE:-
  kT  
  Laser light is coherent both in space and
time. By virtue of its high monochromaticity
U  d = 8kT−4 d This is Rayleigh-Jean’s laser beam has high temporal coherence.
The directional property of the laser contributes
equation. for its spatial coherence.

Boltzmann’s theory of population of energy (ii) MONOCHROMATICITY

states Monochromatic refers to single wavelength.
The number of atoms in an energy state is known In practice no light source is monochromatic.
as the population of that energy state. According Hence only the degree of monochromaticity is
to Boltzmann the populations of different energy considered for line width. The plot of intensity of
states are related to each other if the system is in the laser beam with its wavelength shows that
thermal equilibrium. Consider two energy states laser beam is highly monochromatic or has high
E1 and E2 with population N1 and N2 degree of monochromaticity.
respectively such that E2 >E1.
The relation between the two is given by (iii)INTENSITY
−( E ) Laser light is highly intense due to phase
Boltzman formula N = C e kT correlation that exists continuously between the
photons emitted from a laser source. Even low
−( E )
1 power lasers have much greater brightness than
N =C e kT conventional sources due to directionality. Power
1
−( E ) obtained from laser can be from microwatts to
2 terawatts(pulsed).
and N 2 = C e kT
− ( E 2 − E1) (iv) DIRECTIONALITY:-
N2 The laser emission takes place only in one
= e kT
direction because the laser cavity allows the laser
N1
RNS Institute of Technology Physics Notes for ECE stream
 Physics Notes for ECE stream by Dr. PR Module 4- Photonics 4

photons to emerge only through partially silvered for 10-8 seconds and then undergoes transition to
mirror. the ground state E1 by emitting a photon whose
If any photon is deviated it will get diffracted and energy is equal to the energy difference between
won’t give any laser beam. Thus laser beam the energy states E1 & E2. For this emission The
diverges hardly. Therefore laser is highly atom doesn’t require any external energy.
directional. Therefore the emission is known as spontaneous
(v) FOCUSSABILITY emission. The atom can emit photon in any
Since laser is highly monochromatic and highly direction. Two such photons emitted by two
directional it can be brought to sharp focus by a different atoms may or may not be in phase and
lens. Thus laser light has high focus ability. their direction also may be different. Therefore the
spontaneous emission is considered as incoherent
Interaction of Radiation with matter emission. This kind of emission is observed in
Production of laser light is glowing electrical bulb, and candle flame.
a consequence of Spontaneous emission can be represented as
interaction of radiation Atom* Atom + photon.
with matter; as such there
are three distinct processes 3. STIMULATED EMISSION:
through which interaction The process of emission of a photon by an atom in
can takes place. They are the excited state due to the incidence of an
given below. identical photon of same
1. Induced absorption energy on the atom and
2. Spontaneous emission hence the transition of the
3. Stimulated emission atom to a lower energy
state is called stimulated
1. INDUCED ABSORPTION: emission.
The absorption of incident photon by an atom as a
result of which it is excited from a lower energy In this process the incident
state to a higher state is called induced absorption. photon stimulates the atom
If a photon of energy hγ is incident on an atom in to emit an identical photon.
the state of energy E1, then it makes a transition to Hence this process is known as stimulated
the higher energy state E2 by the absorption of the emission. In this process both incident photon and
photon. Schematically,it may be represented as stimulated photon travel in the same direction and
given below. will be in phase. Hence stimulated emission is
Atom + Photon Atom* called coherent emission and the photons are
Where Atom* represent the atom in the excited called coherent photon. This kind of emission is
state. Induced absorption of radiation is the result suitable for laser action. Stimulated emission can
of the action of the electromagnetic field of the be represented as given below.
incident radiation on the system. Therefore the Photon + Atom* Atom +
probability of an Photon + Photon.
induced transition
depends on the
intensity of the EINSTEIN’S COEFFICIENTS
radiation as well as on Einstein proposed some constants of
the internal structure of proportionality to explain the transfer of energy of
the system. atoms during the interaction of radiation with
matter. These constants are called by his name as
Einstein’s constants and are denoted as A21, B12
2. SPONTANEOUS EMISSION: and B21. Their origin is explained in the following
The process of emission of a photon of suitable way. Consider two energy levels E1 and E2 of an
frequency by an atom in a higher energy state, atomic system such that E2> E1. Let the
without any supply of external energy is called population of E1 and E2 be N1 and N2 respectively.
spontaneous emission. Let radiation of energy density Uγ (energy/per
Consider an atom in an excited state. Let E1 be its unit volume) with frequency γ, be incident on the
ground state energy. In the excited state the atom atomic system. When this energy incidents on an
is unstable and hence it stays in the state E2 only atom in the energy level E1, it absorbs the energy
RNS Institute of Technology Physics Notes for ECE stream
 Physics Notes for ECE stream by Dr. PR Module 4- Photonics 5

and makes a transition to the energy level E2. The Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous
number of such absorption per second per unit emission + Rate of stimulated emission
volume is called rate of absorption. B12UN1 = A21N2 + B21UN2
The rate of absorption depends on the number of
Or U (B12N1 - B21N2) = A21N2
atoms in the lower energy state and the energy
density Uγ of the incident radiation. Therefore  
A21 N 2  
Rate of absorption  N1 Uγ U = Or U = A21  1
 ----
B12 N1 − B21 N 2 B21  B12 N1 − 1
= B12N1 Uγ  B21 N 2 
Where B12 is called Einstein’s coefficient of ----------->(1)
induced absorption. But, by Boltzmann’s law, we have
In case of spontaneous emission an atom in the  E −E 
− 2 1 
 h 
− 
higher energy level E2 undergoes transition to the N 2 = N1e  kT 
= N1e  kT 

energy state E1 voluntarily by emitting a photon. h

N1
The rate of spontaneous emission depends only on Therefore = e kT Thus equation (1) can be
number of atoms (N2) in the energy state E2. Rate N2
of spontaneous emission  N2  
 
written as U = A21  1  --------------->(2)
=A21 N2 B21  B12 hkT 
Where A21 is called Einstein’s co-efficient of  e − 1
spontaneous emission.  B21 
If the energy density Uγ incidents an atom in the According to Planck’s energy density formula
energy states E2, it undergoes stimulated emission.  
8h 3  1 
The rate of stimulated emission is proportional to energy density is U  = ------>(3)
the number of atoms (N2) in the energy state E2, c 3  hkT 
 e − 1
and the incident energy density Uγ. Rate of Comparing equations (2) and (3), term by term on
stimulated emission  N2 Uγ the basis of positional identity, we have,

= B21 N2 Uγ A21 8h 3 B

Where B21, is called Einstein’s coefficient of = 3
and 12 = 1 or B12 = B21
stimulated emission. B21 c B21
The above equality implies that the probability of
EXPRESSION FOR ENERGY DENSITY induced absorption is equal to the probability of
stimulated emission. Because of the above
identity, the subscripts could be dropped, and A21
and B21 can be represented as A and B and
equation (3) can be rewritten.
Therefore at thermal equilibrium, the equation for
 
A 1 
energy density is U =
B  hkT 
 e − 1
Metastable state:
An intermediate energy state between an excited
Consider an atomic system in thermal equilibrium. state and the ground state of the atomic energy
When the system is in thermal equilibrium its total levels, in which the atoms stay for a long period of
energy remains unchanged inspite of the the order 10-2 to 10-3 secs, is called metastable
interaction of atoms with incident radiation on it. state. When an atom in the ground state absorbs
Under equilibrium the number of photons certain amount of energy it transits to higher
absorbed by system per second is equal to number energy state. The lifetime of the atom in the
of photons emitted by it due to stimulated excited state is 10-8 secs. Since the lifetime of the
emission and spontaneous emission. atoms in this state is very less all the atoms return
to the ground state immediately after the
excitation. Hence population inversion can’t be
At thermal equilibrium we have the following. achieved in the higher energy states. But if a

RNS Institute of Technology Physics Notes for ECE stream

 Physics Notes for ECE stream by Dr. PR Module 4- Photonics 6

metastable state exists in an atomic energy action can be achieved is called active medium.
system, then the atoms stay in that state for a The active medium has a metastable state to
period of the order 10-2 to 10-3 seconds, which is achieve the population inversion. The number of
very large, when compared to that of higher energy states of the active medium contributing
energy state. Hence, before the atoms undergo for the lasing action can be either three or four in
transition to ground state from metastable state, number. Accordingly the laser system is named as
large number of atoms collects in the metastable three level laser system or four level laser system.
state due to the pumping action. Thus the Depending up on the type of active medium used,
population inversion can be achieved in the the lasers are classified into four groups in the
metastable state. following way.

Pumping: The process of exciting atoms from (i) Gas lasers: They consist of mixture of gases as
lower energy state to a higher energy state by the active medium. Example: He-Ne laser& Co2
supplying energy from an external source is called laser.
Pumping. There are various types of pumping (ii) Solid-state lasers: They consist of crystals as
process like the optical pumping, electrical the active medium. Ex: ruby laser, YAG laser
pumping, solar energy etc. The process of exciting (YAG = Yttrium Aluminum garnet)
the atoms from a lower to higher energy state by (iii)Semiconductor Lasers: They consist of
supplying light energy to a system is called optical semiconductors like Gallium Arsenide (GAS) as
pumping. Instead of light energy if electrical the material medium.
energy, chemical energy or heat energy are used (iv) Liquid Lasers: They consist of chemicals as
for pumping, then the techniques are respectively the active medium.
called Electrical pumping, chemical pumping and 2. Energy source: The population inversion in the
heat pumping. Out of which the optical pumping laser action is achieved by pumping the atoms
is the most natural pumping system. from the lower energy state by supplying energy
from an external energy source. The source of
Population inversion: energy can be an optical (or) electrical (or)
For achieving population inversion the atomic thermal (or) chemical in nature. Accordingly, the
energy levels, should have a metastable state. The pumping action is named as optical pumping,
process of achieving population inversion can be electrical pumping, heat pumping (or) chemical
explained in the following way. Consider three pumping. The energy supplied from the source
energy levels E1, E2 and E3 of an atomic system, helps not only for the excitation of the atoms but
in such a way that E1<E2<E3. Let E2 be the also for the stimulated emission. For example
metastable state. Under normal conditions the incase of optical source, some of the light photons
atoms remain in lower energy state E1. But when incident on the atomic system are absorbed by the
suitable amount of energy is supplied to them they atoms in the ground state for induced absorption,
start undergoing excitation to the state E3. The and in the metastable state the photons cause
excited atoms in the state E3 stay for a period of stimulated emission. Thus a source of energy is an
10-8 sec and then undergo non radiative transition essential requisite of the laser system.
to the metastable state E2, where they stay for a
long duration of the order 10-3 secs. If the 3. Resonant cavity: An arrangement used in a
pumping of atoms from E1 to E3 is maintained laser device to increase the emitted photon energy
continuously, then the population of E1 decreases density is called resonant cavity. In practice a
continuously. The atoms excited to the state E3 resonant cavity consists of two mirrors fixed on
undergo immediate downward trasition to E2, as a either side along the length of the active medium.
result of which the population of E2 increases One of their mirrors is completely silvered and the
more. At certain stage the population of E2 will be other is partially silvered. The completely silvered
more than that of E1. This stage of operation is mirror contributes only for reflection where as the
known as population inversion.

Requisites of a Laser System

The following are the three requisites of a laser
system.
1. Active medium: A material medium in which
the population inversion and hence the lasing
RNS Institute of Technology Physics Notes for ECE stream
 Physics Notes for ECE stream by Dr. PR Module 4- Photonics 7

partially silvered mirror acts as exit for laser and conduction band which in turn result in
output apart from reflecting the photons. The stimulated emission. At this stage, a photon
photons emitted during stimulated emission originally released by spontaneous emission may
process suffer multiple reflections between the trigger stimulated emission over a large number of
mirrors and get emitted after their number is recombination, leading to the buildup of laser
increased. Due to the continuous emission of radiation of high [Link] laser produce laser
photons, the number of photons is increased and beam of wavelength 8870Å in IR region.
an intense laser light is emitted through the
partially silvered mirror. In the resonant cavity the POWER OF A LASER BEAM
distance between the mirrors is adjusted in such a Power of a laser is the rate at which energy is
way that the photons undergoing reflections delivered by the laser beam.
should be in phase so that they are coherent. Since laser light is highly monochromatic,
coherent, and collimated, even a small amount of
power can be concentrated into a very tiny spot,
SEMI-CONDUCTOR LASER [GaAS Lser] producing extremely high power densities
(intensities).
The power of a laser is defined as the ratio of the
total energy carried by all photons in the laser
beam to the time interval during which this
energy is delivered.
Power is given by P=E/t
Energy of each laser photon is hc/λ.
For N photons total energy is E=Nhc/λ
Thus P= Nhc/λt

APPLICATIONS OF LASERS
Lasers are used in industrial, societal, scientific
Construction: Gallium-arsenide (Ga-As) laser is and medical applications as given below.
as shown in the figure. It consists of heavily 1. In Industry Lasers are used to cut metals, drill
doped n-region of GaAs doped with tellurium and holes in metals and weld metals
p-region of GaAs doped with zinc. A pair of 2. Lasers are used in holography to produce 3D
parallel surfaces of the crystal are polished at right images of objects
to the p-n layer. These surfaces act as reflecting 3. Lasers are used in Barcode scanners at shops
mirrors. The top and bottom surfaces of p and n 4. Lasers are used in Printers to take Laser print
sections are provided with electrodes to connect 5. Lasers shows are popular for entertainment and
the voltage source. display
6. Laser guided missiles are used to pin point the
Working targets of enemies
7. In scientific field Lasers Spectroscopy is used
for Identification of atomic and molecular
structures.
8. Lasers are used for detecting pollutants and
trace elements.
9. In medicine lasers are used for eye surgery. The
process is called LASIK (Laser-Assisted In Situ
Keratomileusis).
10. Lasers are used for Bloodless Surgery to
The laser diode is subjected to forward bias with coagulate blood vessels and reduce blood loss.
voltage. Electrons from the n – section and holes 11. Lasers are used in skin treatment for removal
from p –section flow across the junction. When a of Birthmarks, Tattoos, wrinkles and Scars.
hole meets an electron, recombination takes place 12. Dentist use Lasers for Cavity Treatment and
resulting in the emission of a photon. As the removal of decayed tissue with less pain.
voltage is gradually increased population
inversion is achieved between the valence band
RNS Institute of Technology Physics Notes for ECE stream
 Physics Notes for ECE stream by Dr. PR Module 4- Photonics 8

strength and also confines itself completely within

the core during the course of propagation.
OPTICAL FIBERS Angle of acceptance(θo):
The maximum angle made by an incident light ray
Optical Fibers are thin long strands of ultra pure with the axis of the optical fiber such that its
glass or plastic used to transmit light without refracted ray incidents on the core-cladding
much loss of energy. An optical fiber is a interface at critical angle is called angle of
cylindrical dielectric waveguide that transmits acceptance.
light along its axis, by the process of Total
Internal Reflection (TIR).
Construction of Optical Fiber:

Numerical aperture (NA):

The sine of angle of acceptance is called
numerical aperture. It is denoted as NA and it is
The structure of an optical fiber is shown in given by
Figure. It consists of a central solid cylinder called N.A= sinθo. Numerical aperture gives the light
‘Core’ made up of glass or plastic of high gathering ability of the optical fiber. The
refractive index. Core is the light guiding region numerical aperture of fibre is determined by the
of the optical fiber. The core is surrounded by a acceptance angle and the fractional refractive
concentric cylinder of similar material called index change.
‘Cladding’ but of lower refractive index. Cladding
confines the light to the core region. The cladding Derivation of numerical aperture of Fiber
is enclosed in a polyurethane sheath. Sheath
protects the cladding and the core from
mechanical wear and tear, contaminations and
moisture.
Working principle of Optical Fiber:

Consider an optical fiber into which light is

Optical fiber works on the principle of total launched. Let n1, n2 and n0 be the refractive indices
internal reflection. The core region has high of core, cladding and surrounding medium
refractive index and hence is a denser medium. respectively (n0<n2 < n1).
Cladding is a rarer medium. A light ray incident Let a light ray enter the fibre at an angle θo to the
at the core-cladding interface at an angle greater axis of the fibre. The ray refracts at θ1 and strikes
than critical angle undergoes total internal the core-cladding interface at critical angle θc.
reflection in to the core region. Due to cylindrical
symmetry, the totally reflected ray suffers From the Snell’s law at the point of entry of the
multiple total internal reflections inside the core core no sinθo = n1sinθ1
and emerges out through the other end of the n1
fiber. Thus, the light will be guided through the Sinθo= Sinθ1………….>1
n0
core due to repeated total internal reflection, even
At the point B, θc = (90- θ1)
if the fiber is bent. Since each reflection is a total
From Snell’s law at B we have n1 sinθc = n2 sin90
internal reflection, the light signal sustains its
But θc = (90- θ1)  n1 sin (90- θ1) = n2sin90
RNS Institute of Technology Physics Notes for ECE stream
 Physics Notes for ECE stream by Dr. PR Module 4- Photonics 9

i.e n1Cos θ1 = n2 [ sin (90- θ1)= Cosθ1 & Sin 90 2 2

= 1] Substituting for NA we get V=  d n − n
1 2
n
Cos θ1 = 2 We have Sin θ1 = 1 − Cos 2 1  n
n1 0
2
Where d is the core diameter
n2 n1 refractive index of the core and n2 is refractive
Sin θ1 = 1 − -------- >2
n1
2
index of the cladding. λ is the wavelength of light
Substituting equation (2) in equation (1), we have propagating in the fiber. The number of modes
V2
n1 n2
2 supported by the fiber is given by N 
Sinθo = 1− 2 Sinθo =
2
n0 n1 NOTE: Relation between n and θo. is SinθC =(1/n)
n1 Refractive index profile:
n −n
2 2

n0 1 2
“The plot which represents the variation of
n
2

1
refractive index with respect to the radial distance
2 2
from the axis of the fiber is called refractive index
n1 n1 − n 2
n −n profile.
2 2

Sinθo= Sinθo=
n0
1 2
no TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS
n 1 Based on the dimension, refractive index profile
If the surrounding medium is air, then no=1 and the number of modes the optical fibers are
2 2 classified into three types as given below.
 Sinθo = n1 − n 2 i.e., N.A =
2 2 1. Single mode Step index fiber:-
n1 − n 2 A single mode fiber has core and cladding made
Condition for Propogation of light in Optical up of materials of uniform refractive index values
Fiber: such that the refractive index of core is more than
If the angle of incidence of light on the fibre is θi, that of cladding. This results in a sudden decrease
then it will propagate through the fibre if θi < θo in the value of refractive index at core cladding
2 2 interface. Thus its refractive index profile takes
sin θi < Sin θo. We have Sinθo = n1 − n2
the shape of a step. The diameter of the core is
2 2
sin θi < n1 − n2 Thus condition for about 8 to 10 μm and diameter of cladding is 60 to
propagation of light through the fiber is sin θi < 70 μm. Because of its narrow core, it can guide
N.A. just a single mode as shown. Hence it is called
MODES OF PROPAGATION single mode fiber.
When light incidents on the core of the optical
fiber the light rays that enter the fiber with an
angle of incidence less than or equal to angle of
acceptance (θo) will undergo total internal
reflection within the fiber. But it is not true that all The geometry, refractive index profile and ray
such rays propagate along the fiber. In reality only diagram for light propagation in single mode fiber
certain ray directions are allowed to propagate. are as shown in the figure.
These allowed directions are called “modes”. The light used in the fiber can be only laser
The number of possible of paths of propagation because of its narrow diameter.
of light in an optical fiber are called modes of
propagation.
The number of modes supported for propagation
in the fiber is determined by a parameter called
“V-number” denoted as V. If the surrounding
medium is air then the V-number is given by
d
V= ( NA)


RNS Institute of Technology Physics Notes for ECE stream

 Physics Notes for ECE stream by Dr. PR Module 4- Photonics 10

Applications of Single mode Fiber: 3. GRADED INDEX MULTIMODE FIBER:

1. Single mode fibers are used in Submarine cable An optical fiber which has refractive index
systems gradience is called Graded index fiber. In this
2. They are used for long distance communication fiber the refractive index of the core is non
and excessive bandwidth applications uniform but that of cladding is uniform. The
refractive index of the core decreases from the
2. MULTIMODE STEP INDEX FIBER: center towards the core cladding interface as a
A multimode fiber consists of core and cladding function of radial distance. Therefore there is
of uniform refractive indices with the refractive refractive index gradient and the fiber is called
index of core greater than that of cladding. The graded index fiber. Hence, it is also denoted as
diameter of the core is about 50 to 200 μm and GRIN. The geometry of the GRIN multimode
diameter of cladding is 100 to 250 μm. Due to fiber is same as that of step index multimode
large diameters of core and cladding the refractive fiber. Due to refractive index gradient the signals
index profile has step of large width. Because of get totally reflected by layers in the core. Due to
large diameter of core the fiber allows many larger core diameter this fiber allows many modes
modes to propagate through it. Hence it is called to propagate through it. Hence, it is called multi
multi mode fiber. The fiber diameter, refractive mode fiber. The parabolic profile results in
index profile and light propagation in single mode continual refocusing of the rays in the core, and
fiber are as shown in the figure. minimizes modal dispersion. Laser or LED is
For multimode step Index fiber Laser or LED can used as light source. The fiber diameter, refractive
be used as light source. index profile and light propagation in single mode
fiber are as shown in the following figure.

Applications:
1. It is widely used for Illumination purposes as it Applications:
is cheapest of all fibers 1. They find particular application in telephone
2. It is used in Sensors systems as it produces less trunk between central offices.
distortion of signals 2. They are used internet connection to provide
3. It is also used for short distance communication large bandwidth and LAN connections

RNS Institute of Technology Physics Notes for ECE stream

 Physics Notes for ECE stream by Dr. PR Module 4- Photonics 11

ATTENUATION 2. SCATTERING LOSSES:

The loss of power suffered by the optical signal The loss of energy that
as it propagates through the fiber is called occurs due to scattering
“Attenuation”. When the optical signal of light photons inside
propagates through an optical fiber there is a loss the core region of the
of power. The attenuation of an optical fiber fiber is called
measures the amount of light lost between input Scattering losses.
and output. Attenuation decreases the amplitude The glass with which
of the light wave due to the decrease in intensity the core is made has a disordered structure having
of emitted light. local variations in the refractive index. While the
The attenuation is measured in terms of a factor signal travels in the fiber. The photon may be
called attenuation co-efficient (α). scattered due to the sharp changes in refractive
10 P index values inside the glass over distances that
α= log out dB/Km Where L= the are small compared to the wavelength of light
L Pin
signal. This type of scattering is same as
length of the fiber, Pout = power of output optical
“Rayleigh scattering”. It occurs when a light wave
signal and Pin = Power of input optical signal.
travels through a medium having scattering
objects whose dimensions are smaller than
Types of Attenuation (Fiber Losses)
wavelength of light. The Rayleigh scattering is
inversely proportional to the fourth power of
1. ABSORPTION LOSSES:
1
This arises due to the absorption of photons wavelength [I α 4 ] which means that light of
associated with optical signal. Light when passes 
through a fiber gets absorbed to a small extent by smaller wavelength are scattered to a larger
the material of the fibre and also by the impurities extent. Due to Rayleigh scattering the photons
present in the fibre. These losses may be either moves in random direction leave the fiber and
due to the absorption of light by basic core thus becomes a loss.
material itself (intrinsic absorption) or due to the The other type of scattering losses are due to the
presence of impurities (Extrinsic absorption). structural in homogeneities and defects (ex: glass
bubbles, unreacted starting material and some
Intrinsic absorption: crystallized regions in the glass) created during
The absorption of light by the material of core of the fiber fabricator. These can be minimized by
the fiber is called intrinsic absorption. Even a efficient manufacturing methods. Hence these
highly pure glass (core material) absorbs light losses are negligible compared to the Rayleigh
energy (photons) in specific wavelength region. scattering losses.
A strong electronic absorption occurs at 3. RADIATION LOSSES:
ultraviolet wavelengths. The loss of light energy into the surroundings of a
Extrinsic absorption: device is called radiation loss. The radiation loss
The absorption of light by the impurities present occur due to bending of fiber. There are two types
in the core of the fiber is called intrinsic of bonds-Macroscopic bends and Microscopic
absorption. These are due to the absorption of bends.
light energy (photons) by the impurities such as Macroscopic bends
Hydroxyl ion (OH) transition metal ions such as
Fe, Cr, Co, Ni, Mg, Va etc.
During the signal propagation when photons
interact with these impurities, the ions absorb the
photons and get excited to higher energy states.
Hence it is a loss. The presence of impurities
causes heavy losses.
These losses can be minimized by restricting
Metals ions content to less than few parts/billion
and OH content to less than few parts per million. These are the bends having radii of curvature that
are smaller compared to the fiber diameter. This
occurs in a fiber while wrapping the fiber on a
spool or turning it around a corner. The fibre can
be bent with the radii of curvature as small as
RNS Institute of Technology Physics Notes for ECE stream
 Physics Notes for ECE stream by Dr. PR Module 4- Photonics 12

10cm with negligible loss. Fiber can withstand Po

dP
L
After integration we get
bends of curvature down to 150 times the fiber Pi P = − 0 dL
diameter for still smaller curvature they may Po L
or ln( Po) − ln( Pi ) = − L
ln[ p]Pi = − [L]0
break. The loss is negligible for smaller bends.


When the bend in the optical fiber is such that the P 

incidence angle of the light ray at interface of core ln o  = − L 

and cladding falls below the critical angle, total  Pi 

internal reflection will not take place. Due to this The loss of optical energy is measured in terms of
some of the light energy escapes through the P 
attenuation co-efficient (α).
 = − ln o 
1
cladding and leads to the loss in the intensity of P 


L
 i 
light ray. As the radius of curvature of the bend
decreases, the loss increases exponentially until a This expression shows that loss of power in
certain critical value of radius of curvature is optical fiber is logarithmic in nature. In analogy
reached. When the radius of curvature of the bend with attenuation of sound waves the unit of
becomes less than the critical value, the loss attenuation of light in the optical fiber is
suddenly becomes very large. expressed in Bel. In acoustics the variation of
sound intensity is dealt in common common
Microscopic bends: logarithem i.e logarithm to the base ten (log10).
Microscopic bending Thus the expression for attenuation coefficient is
occurs due to non- written in the following form.
P 
uniformities in the 1
 = − log  o  Bel / unit length
manufacturing of the 10  


L
 Pi 
fiber or by non
In optical fiber technology it is customary to
uniform lateral
express the quantity α in decibel per kilometer
pressure created
We know that 1Bel=10dB (1Bel=10deci Bel)
during the cabling of P 
the fiber. The micro bends couple light between 10  o This represents the
 =− log10  
dB / km
the various guided modes of the fiber and some of L P
 i 
them then leak through the fiber. Microbending expression for attenuation of Optical Fiber.
losses could be minimized by extruding a
compressible jacket over the fiber which can APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBERS
withstand the stresses keeping the fiber relatively Optical fibers are used in industrial, societal,
straight. scientific and medical applications as given
below.
Attenuation Coefficient: 1. Optical fibers are used for communication in
The loss of optical energy is measured in terms of Telephone, Internet, LAN (local area network) TV
attenuation co-efficient (α). It is given by the and Submarine cables.
following expression [Link] are used for Surveillance Cameras
P 
10 (CCTVs)
 =− log10  o dB km
/
L P 3. Optical fibers are used for Sensors based on
 i 
change of Temperature, pressure, strain and
Expression for Attenuation Coefficient vibrations.
According to Lambert’s law we have − dP =   P 4. They are in Lighting and Decoration
dL
dP 5. In medical field optical fibers are used for
Rearranging the terms we get = − dL on
P


Endoscopy (viewing internal organs) and

Integration  dP = −  dL Biomedical sensors
6. Optical fibers are used in refractometers to


P
If Pi is the power launched into the fiber and Po is measure refractive index.
the power received, the limits of integration are Pi
and Po. OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION:
The transmission of information by the
propagation of optical signal through the optical
fibers which involves the conversion of electrical
signal to optical signal (by means of LED or
semiconductor laser)at the transmitting end and
RNS Institute of Technology Physics Notes for ECE stream
 Physics Notes for ECE stream by Dr. PR Module 4- Photonics 13

conversion of optical signal back to electrical 2. The signal strength and purity is retained
signal (transducers) at the receiving end is called in optical fibers.
“Optical fiber communication”. 3. Because of their compactness and light
weight, fibers are much easier to transport.
Point to point communication system: 4. The cost of fiber optic communication
Block diagram of a point to point communication system is lower them that of an equivalent
system is as shown in the figure. At the starting metallic cable communication system.
point we have analog information such as the
voice of the telephone user. This information Disadvantages of optical communication
comes out of the telephone receiver (transducers) system
in the form of electrical signals in analog form. 1. The optical connectors used to connect
These analog signals are converted into binary two fibers are expensive.
data using a device called coder. The binary date 2. Fibers undergo expansion and contraction
comes out as a stream of electrical pulses from the with temperature that upset some critical
codes. These electrical pulses are converted into alignments which lead to loss in signal
pulses of optical power by modulating light power.
emitted by an optical source (such as LED) by the 3. The bending will increase the loss of the
signal in the binary form. This unit is called signal. Hence, the fiber should be laid
“Optical transmitter”. straight.
The output of the optical transmitter is fed into 4. If an optical fiber breaks the techniques
one end of an optical fiber. The optical signal used to reset the fiber are skillful and time
travelling through the fiber will become consuming.
progressively attenuated and distorted (because of
various losses and distortion occuring in the
fiber). Therefore repeaters are used in the
transmission line to amplify and reshape the
signal. Finally, at the receiving end, the optical .
signal from the fiber is fed into photo detector,
where the signal is converted into pulses of
electric current which is fed to decoder which
converts the sequence of binary data into an
analog signal which will be the same information
such as voice which was at transmitting end.

Advantages of optical communication system

1. The material used for making optical
fibers are SiO2 and plastic both of which
are easily available at low cost.

RNS Institute of Technology Physics Notes for ECE stream